Oracle8 SQL Reference
Release 8.0

A58225-01

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3
Operators, Functions, Expressions, Conditions

This chapter describes methods of manipulating individual data items. Standard arithmetic operators such as addition and subtraction are discussed, as well as less common functions such as absolute value and string length. Topics include:

Operators

An operator manipulates individual data items and returns a result. The data items are called operands or arguments. Operators are represented by special characters or by keywords. For example, the multiplication operator is represented by an asterisk (*) and the operator that tests for nulls is represented by the keywords IS NULL. Tables in this section list SQL operators.

Unary and Binary Operators

There are two general classes of operators:

unary  

A unary operator operates on only one operand. A unary operator typically appears with its operand in this format:  

 

operator operand  

binary  

A binary operator operates on two operands. A binary operator appears with its operands in this format:  

 

operand1 operator operand2  

Other operators with special formats accept more than two operands. If an operator is given a null operand, the result is always null. The only operator that does not follow this rule is concatenation (||).

Precedence

Precedence is the order in which Oracle evaluates different operators in the same expression. When evaluating an expression containing multiple operators, Oracle evaluates operators with higher precedence before evaluating those with lower precedence. Oracle evaluates operators with equal precedence from left to right within an expression.

Table 3-1 lists the levels of precedence among SQL operators from high to low. Operators listed on the same line have the same precedence.

Table 3-1 SQL Operator Precedence
Operator   Operation  

+, -  

identity, negation  

*, /  

multiplication, division  

+, -, ||  

addition, subtraction, concatenation  

=, !=, <, >, <=, >=, IS NULL, LIKE, BETWEEN, IN  

comparison  

NOT  

exponentiation, logical negation  

AND  

conjunction  

OR  

disjunction  

Example

In the following expression multiplication has a higher precedence than addition, so Oracle first multiplies 2 by 3 and then adds the result to 1.

1+2*3 

You can use parentheses in an expression to override operator precedence. Oracle evaluates expressions inside parentheses before evaluating those outside.

SQL also supports set operators (UNION, UNION ALL, INTERSECT, and MINUS), which combine sets of rows returned by queries, rather than individual data items. All set operators have equal precedence.

Arithmetic Operators

You can use an arithmetic operator in an expression to negate, add, subtract, multiply, and divide numeric values. The result of the operation is also a numeric value. Some of these operators are also used in date arithmetic. Table 3-2 lists arithmetic operators.

Table 3-2 Arithmetic Operators
Operator   Purpose   Example  

+ -  

Denotes a positive or negative expression. These are unary operators.  

SELECT * FROM orders
 WHERE qtysold = -1;
SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE -sal < 0;
 

* /  

Multiplies, divides. These are binary operators.  

UPDATE emp
  SET sal = sal * 1.1;
 

+ -  

Adds, subtracts. These are binary operators.  

SELECT sal + comm FROM emp
  WHERE SYSDATE - hiredate
  > 365;
 

Do not use two consecutive minus signs with no separation (--) in arithmetic expressions to indicate double negation or the subtraction of a negative value. The characters -- are used to begin comments within SQL statements. You should separate consecutive minus signs with a space or a parenthesis. For more information on comments within SQL statements, see "Comments".

Concatenation Operator

The concatenation operator manipulates character strings. Table 3-3 describes the concatenation operator.

Table 3-3 Concatenation Operator
Operator   Purpose   Example  

||  

Concatenates character strings.  

SELECT 'Name is ' || ename
   FROM emp;
 

The result of concatenating two character strings is another character string. If both character strings are of datatype CHAR, the result has datatype CHAR and is limited to 2000 characters. If either string is of datatype VARCHAR2, the result has datatype VARCHAR2 and is limited to 4000 characters. Trailing blanks in character strings are preserved by concatenation, regardless of the strings' datatypes. For more information on the differences between the CHAR and VARCHAR2 datatypes, see "Character Datatypes".

On most platforms, the concatenation operator is two solid vertical bars, as shown in Table 3-3. However, some IBM platforms use broken vertical bars for this operator. When moving SQL script files between systems having different character sets, such as between ASCII and EBCDIC, vertical bars might not be translated into the vertical bar required by the target Oracle environment. Oracle provides the CONCAT character function as an alternative to the vertical bar operator for cases when it is difficult or impossible to control translation performed by operating system or network utilities. Use this function in applications that will be moved between environments with differing character sets.

Although Oracle treats zero-length character strings as nulls, concatenating a zero-length character string with another operand always results in the other operand, so null can result only from the concatenation of two null strings. However, this may not continue to be true in future versions of Oracle. To concatenate an expression that might be null, use the NVL function to explicitly convert the expression to a zero-length string.

Example

This example creates a table with both CHAR and VARCHAR2 columns, inserts values both with and without trailing blanks, and then selects these values, concatenating them. Note that for both CHAR and VARCHAR2 columns, the trailing blanks are preserved.

CREATE TABLE tab1 (col1 VARCHAR2(6), col2 CHAR(6),
        col3 VARCHAR2(6), col4 CHAR(6) );

Table created.

INSERT INTO tab1 (col1,  col2,     col3,     col4)
        VALUES   ('abc', 'def   ', 'ghi   ', 'jkl');

1 row created.

SELECT col1||col2||col3||col4 "Concatenation"
        FROM tab1;

Concatenation
------------------------
abcdef   ghi   jkl

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators compare one expression with another. The result of such a comparison can be TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN. For information on conditions, see "Conditions". Table 3-4 lists comparison operators.

Table 3-4 Comparison Operators
Operator   Purpose   Example  
=
 

Equality test.  

SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE sal = 1500;
 
!=
^=
<>
¬= 
 

Inequality test. Some forms of the inequality operator may be unavailable on some platforms.  

SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE sal != 1500;
 
>

<
 

"Greater than" and "less than" tests.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal > 1500;
SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal < 1500;
 
>=

<=
 

"Greater than or equal to" and "less than or equal to" tests.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal >= 1500;
SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal <= 1500;
 
IN
 

"Equal to any member of" test. Equivalent to "= ANY".  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE job IN
  ('CLERK','ANALYST');
SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal IN
  (SELECT sal FROM emp
   WHERE deptno = 30);
 
NOT IN
 

Equivalent to "!=ALL". Evaluates to FALSE if any member of the set is NULL.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal NOT IN
  (SELECT sal FROM emp
  WHERE deptno = 30);
SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE job NOT IN
  ('CLERK', ANALYST');
 
ANY
SOME
 

Compares a value to each value in a list or returned by a query. Must be preceded by =, !=, >, <, <=, >=.

Evaluates to FALSE if the query returns no rows.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal = ANY
  (SELECT sal FROM emp
  WHERE deptno = 30);
 
ALL
 

Compares a value to every value in a list or returned by a query. Must be preceded by =, !=, >, <, <=, >=.

Evaluates to TRUE if the query returns no rows.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal >=
  ALL ( 1400, 3000);
 
[NOT] 
BETWEEN 
x AND y
 

[Not] greater than or equal to x and less than or equal to y.  

SELECT * FROM emp
  WHERE sal
  BETWEEN 2000 AND 3000;
 
EXISTS
 

TRUE if a subquery returns at least one row.  

SELECT ename, deptno 
  FROM dept
  WHERE EXISTS
  (SELECT * FROM emp
    WHERE dept.deptno 
    = emp.deptno);
 
x [NOT] 
LIKE y 

[ESCAPE 
'z']
 

TRUE if x does [not] match the pattern y. Within y, the character "%" matches any string of zero or more characters except null. The character "_" matches any single character. Any character, excepting percent (%) and underbar (_) may follow ESCAPE; a wildcard character is treated as a literal if preceded by the character designated as the escape character.  

See "LIKE Operator".

SELECT * FROM tab1
  WHERE col1 LIKE
  'A_C/%E%' ESCAPE '/';
 
IS 
[NOT] 
NULL
 

Tests for nulls. This is the only operator that you should use to test for nulls. See "Nulls".  

SELECT ename, deptno
  FROM emp
  WHERE comm IS NULL;
 

Additional information on the NOT IN and LIKE operators appears in the sections that follow.

NOT IN Operator

If any item in the list following a NOT IN operation is null, all rows evaluate to UNKNOWN (and no rows are returned). For example, the following statement returns the string 'TRUE' for each row:

SELECT 'TRUE' 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE deptno NOT IN (5,15); 

However, the following statement returns no rows:

SELECT 'TRUE' 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE deptno NOT IN (5,15,null); 

The above example returns no rows because the WHERE clause condition evaluates to:

deptno != 5 AND deptno != 15 AND deptno != null 

Because all conditions that compare a null result in a null, the entire expression results in a null. This behavior can easily be overlooked, especially when the NOT IN operator references a subquery.

LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in character string comparisons with pattern matching. The syntax for a condition using the LIKE operator is shown in this diagram:

where:

char1  

is a value to be compared with a pattern. This value can have datatype CHAR or VARCHAR2.  

NOT  

logically inverts the result of the condition, returning FALSE if the condition evaluates to TRUE and TRUE if it evaluates to FALSE.  

char2  

is the pattern to which char1 is compared. The pattern is a value of datatype CHAR or VARCHAR2 and can contain the special pattern matching characters % and _.  

ESCAPE  

identifies a single character as the escape character. The escape character can be used to cause Oracle to interpret % or _ literally, rather than as a special character, in the pattern.

If you wish to search for strings containing an escape character, you must specify this character twice. For example, if the escape character is '/', to search for the string 'client/server', you must specify, 'client//server'.  

While the equal (=) operator exactly matches one character value to another, the LIKE operator matches a portion of one character value to another by searching the first value for the pattern specified by the second. Note that blank padding is not used for LIKE comparisons.

With the LIKE operator, you can compare a value to a pattern rather than to a constant. The pattern can only appear after the LIKE keyword. For example, you can issue the following query to find the salaries of all employees with names beginning with 'SM':

SELECT sal 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE ename LIKE 'SM%';

The following query uses the = operator, rather than the LIKE operator, to find the salaries of all employees with the name 'SM%':

SELECT sal 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE ename = 'SM%';

The following query finds the salaries of all employees with the name 'SM%'. Oracle interprets 'SM%' as a text literal, rather than as a pattern, because it precedes the LIKE operator:

SELECT sal 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE 'SM%' LIKE ename;

Patterns usually use special characters that Oracle matches with different characters in the value:

Case Sensitivity and Pattern Matching

Case is significant in all conditions comparing character expressions including the LIKE and equality (=) operators. You can use the UPPER() function to perform a case-insensitive match, as in this condition:

UPPER(ename) LIKE 'SM%' 
Pattern Matching on Indexed Columns

When LIKE is used to search an indexed column for a pattern, Oracle can use the index to improve the statement's performance if the leading character in the pattern is not "%" or "_". In this case, Oracle can scan the index by this leading character. If the first character in the pattern is "%" or "_", the index cannot improve the query's performance because Oracle cannot scan the index.

Example 1

This condition is true for all ENAME values beginning with "MA":

ename LIKE 'MA%' 

All of these ENAME values make the condition TRUE:

MARTIN, MA, MARK, MARY 

Case is significant, so ENAME values beginning with "Ma," "ma," and "mA" make the condition FALSE.

Example 2

Consider this condition:

ename LIKE 'SMITH_' 

This condition is true for these ENAME values:

SMITHE, SMITHY, SMITHS 

This condition is false for 'SMITH', since the special character "_" must match exactly one character of the ENAME value.

ESCAPE Option

You can include the actual characters "%" or "_" in the pattern by using the ESCAPE option. The ESCAPE option identifies the escape character. If the escape character appears in the pattern before the character "%" or "_" then Oracle interprets this character literally in the pattern, rather than as a special pattern matching character.

Example:

To search for any employees with the pattern 'A_B' in their name:

SELECT ename 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE ename LIKE '%A\_B%' ESCAPE '\';

The ESCAPE option identifies the backslash (\) as the escape character. In the pattern, the escape character precedes the underscore (_). This causes Oracle to interpret the underscore literally, rather than as a special pattern matching character.

Patterns Without %

If a pattern does not contain the "%" character, the condition can be TRUE only if both operands have the same length.

Example:

Consider the definition of this table and the values inserted into it:

CREATE TABLE freds (f CHAR(6), v VARCHAR2(6));
INSERT INTO freds VALUES ('FRED', 'FRED');

Because Oracle blank-pads CHAR values, the value of F is blank-padded to 6 bytes. V is not blank-padded and has length 4.

Logical Operators

A logical operator combines the results of two component conditions to produce a single result based on them or to invert the result of a single condition. Table 3-5 lists logical operators.

Table 3-5 Logical Operators
Operator   Function   Example  

NOT  

Returns TRUE if the following condition is FALSE. Returns FALSE if it is TRUE. If it is UNKNOWN, it remains UNKNOWN.  

SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE NOT (job IS NULL);
SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE NOT 
  (sal BETWEEN 1000 AND 2000);
 

AND  

Returns TRUE if both component conditions are TRUE. Returns FALSE if either is FALSE. Otherwise returns UNKNOWN.  

SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE job = 'CLERK'
  AND deptno = 10;
 

OR  

Returns TRUE if either component condition is TRUE. Returns FALSE if both are FALSE. Otherwise returns UNKNOWN.  

SELECT *
  FROM emp
  WHERE job = 'CLERK'
  OR deptno = 10;
 

For example, in the WHERE clause of the following SELECT statement, the AND logical operator is used to ensure that only those hired before 1984 and earning more than $1000 a month are returned:

SELECT * 
    FROM emp 
    WHERE hiredate < TO_DATE('01-JAN-1984', 'DD-MON-YYYY') 
        AND sal > 1000;

NOT Operator

Table 3-6 shows the result of applying the NOT operator to a condition.

Table 3-6 NOT Truth Table

NOT  

TRUE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

 

FALSE  

TRUE  

UNKNOWN  

AND Operator

Table 3-7 shows the results of combining two expressions with AND.

Table 3-7 AND Truth Table

AND  

TRUE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

TRUE  

TRUE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

FALSE  

FALSE  

FALSE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

UNKNOWN  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

OR Operator

Table 3-8 shows the results of combining two expressions with OR.

Table 3-8 OR Truth Table

OR  

TRUE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

TRUE  

TRUE  

TRUE  

TRUE  

FALSE  

TRUE  

FALSE  

UNKNOWN  

UNKNOWN  

TRUE  

UNKNOWN  

UNKNOWN  

Set Operators

Set operators combine the results of two component queries into a single result. Queries containing set operators are called compound queries. Table 3-9 lists SQL set operators.

Table 3-9 Set Operators
Operator   Returns  

UNION  

All rows selected by either query.  

UNION ALL  

All rows selected by either query, including all duplicates.  

INTERSECT  

All distinct rows selected by both queries.  

MINUS  

All distinct rows selected by the first query but not the second.  

All set operators have equal precedence. If a SQL statement contains multiple set operators, Oracle evaluates them from the left to right if no parentheses explicitly specify another order. To comply with emerging SQL standards, a future release of Oracle will give the INTERSECT operator greater precedence than the other set operators. Therefore, you should use parentheses to specify order of evaluation in queries that use the INTERSECT operator with other set operators.

The corresponding expressions in the select lists of the component queries of a compound query must match in number and datatype. If component queries select character data, the datatype of the return values are determined as follows:

Examples

Consider these two queries and their results:

SELECT part
    FROM orders_list1;

PART 
---------- 
SPARKPLUG 
FUEL PUMP 
FUEL PUMP 
TAILPIPE 

SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list2;

PART 
---------- 
CRANKSHAFT 
TAILPIPE 
TAILPIPE 

The following examples combine the two query results with each of the set operators.

UNION Example

The following statement combines the results with the UNION operator, which eliminates duplicate selected rows. This statement shows how datatype must match when columns do not exist in one or the other table:

SELECT part, partnum, to_date(null) date_in
    FROM orders_list1
UNION
SELECT part, to_null(null), date_in
    FROM orders_list2;

PART       PARTNUM DATE_IN
---------- ------- -------- 
SPARKPLUG  3323165 
SPARKPLUG          10/24/98
FUEL PUMP  3323162
FUEL PUMP          12/24/99
TAILPIPE   1332999
TAILPIPE           01/01/01
CRANKSHAFT 9394991
CRANKSHAFT         09/12/02

SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list1 
UNION 
SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list2;

PART 
---------- 
SPARKPLUG 
FUEL PUMP 
TAILPIPE 
CRANKSHAFT 

UNION ALL Example

The following statement combines the results with the UNION ALL operator, which does not eliminate duplicate selected rows:

SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list1 
UNION ALL 
SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list2;

PART 
---------- 
SPARKPLUG 
FUEL PUMP 
FUEL PUMP 
TAILPIPE 
CRANKSHAFT 
TAILPIPE 
TAILPIPE 

Note that the UNION operator returns only distinct rows that appear in either result, while the UNION ALL operator returns all rows. A PART value that appears multiple times in either or both queries (such as 'FUEL PUMP') is returned only once by the UNION operator, but multiple times by the UNION ALL operator.

INTERSECT Example

The following statement combines the results with the INTERSECT operator which returns only those rows returned by both queries:

SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list1 
INTERSECT 
SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list2;

PART 
---------- 
TAILPIPE 

MINUS Example

The following statement combines results with the MINUS operator, which returns only rows returned by the first query but not by the second:

SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list1 
MINUS 
SELECT part 
    FROM orders_list2;

PART 
---------- 
SPARKPLUG 
FUEL PUMP 

Other Operators

Table 3-10 lists other SQL operators.

Table 3-10 Other SQL Operators
Operator   Purpose   Example  

(+)  

Indicates that the preceding column is the outer join column in a join. See "Outer Joins".  

SELECT ename, dname
  FROM emp, dept
  WHERE dept.deptno =
     emp.deptno(+);
 

PRIOR  

Evaluates the following expression for the parent row of the current row in a hierarchical, or tree-structured, query. In such a query, you must use this operator in the CONNECT BY clause to define the relationship between parent and child rows. You can also use this operator in other parts of a SELECT statement that performs a hierarchical query. The PRIOR operator is a unary operator and has the same precedence as the unary + and - arithmetic operators. See "Hierarchical Queries".  

SELECT empno, ename, mgr
  FROM emp
  CONNECT BY
     PRIOR empno = mgr;

 

SQL Functions

A SQL function is similar to an operator in that it manipulates data items and returns a result. SQL functions differ from operators in the format in which they appear with their arguments. This format allows them to operate on zero, one, two, or more arguments:

function(argument, argument, ...) 

If you call a SQL function with an argument of a datatype other than the datatype expected by the SQL function, Oracle implicitly converts the argument to the expected datatype before performing the SQL function. See "Data Conversion".

If you call a SQL function with a null argument, the SQL function automatically returns null. The only SQL functions that do not follow this rule are CONCAT, DECODE, DUMP, NVL, and REPLACE.

SQL functions should not be confused with user functions written in PL/SQL. User functions are described in "User Functions".

In the syntax diagrams for SQL functions, arguments are indicated with their datatypes following the conventions described in "Syntax Diagrams and Notation" in the Preface of this reference.

SQL functions are of these general types:

The two types of SQL functions differ in the number of rows upon which they act. A single-row function returns a single result row for every row of a queried table or view; a group function returns a single result row for a group of queried rows.

Single-row functions can appear in select lists (if the SELECT statement does not contain a GROUP BY clause), WHERE clauses, START WITH clauses, and CONNECT BY clauses.

Group functions can appear in select lists and HAVING clauses. If you use the GROUP BY clause in a SELECT statement, Oracle divides the rows of a queried table or view into groups. In a query containing a GROUP BY clause, all elements of the select list must be expressions from the GROUP BY clause, expressions containing group functions, or constants. Oracle applies the group functions in the select list to each group of rows and returns a single result row for each group.

If you omit the GROUP BY clause, Oracle applies group functions in the select list to all the rows in the queried table or view. You use group functions in the HAVING clause to eliminate groups from the output based on the results of the group functions, rather than on the values of the individual rows of the queried table or view. For more information on the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses, see the GROUP BY Clause and the HAVING Clause.

In the sections that follow, functions are grouped by the datatypes of their arguments and return values.

Number Functions

Number functions accept numeric input and return numeric values. This section lists the SQL number functions. Most of these functions return values that are accurate to 38 decimal digits. The transcendental functions COS, COSH, EXP, LN, LOG, SIN, SINH, SQRT, TAN, and TANH are accurate to 36 decimal digits. The transcendental functions ACOS, ASIN, ATAN, and ATAN2 are accurate to 30 decimal digits.

ABS

Purpose  

Returns the absolute value of n.

 

Example  

SELECT ABS(-15) "Absolute" FROM DUAL;

  Absolute
----------
        15
 

ACOS

Purpose  

Returns the arc cosine of n. Inputs are in the range of -1 to 1, and outputs are in the range of 0 to and are expressed in radians.

 

Example  

SELECT ACOS(.3)"Arc_Cosine" FROM DUAL;

Arc_Cosine
----------
1.26610367
 

ASIN

Purpose  

Returns the arc sine of n. Inputs are in the range of -1 to 1, and outputs are in the range of -/2 to /2 and are expressed in radians.

 

Example  

SELECT ASIN(.3) "Arc_Sine" FROM DUAL;

 Arc_Sine
----------
.304692654
 

ATAN

Purpose  

Returns the arc tangent of n. Inputs are in an unbounded range, and outputs are in the range of -/2 to /2 and are expressed in radians.

 

Example  

SELECT ATAN(.3) "Arc_Tangent" FROM DUAL;

Arc_Tangent
----------
.291456794
 

ATAN2

Purpose  

Returns the arc tangent of n and m. Inputs are in an unbounded range, and outputs are in the range of - to , depending on the signs of n and m, and are expressed in radians. Atan2(n,m) is the same as atan2(n/m)

 

Example  

SELECT ATAN2(.3, .2) "Arc_Tangent2" FROM DUAL;
 
Arc_Tangent2
------------
  .982793723
 



CEIL

Purpose  

Returns smallest integer greater than or equal to n.

 

Example  

SELECT CEIL(15.7) "Ceiling" FROM DUAL;

   Ceiling
----------
        16
 

COS

Purpose  

Returns the cosine of n (an angle expressed in radians).

 

Example  

SELECT COS(180 * 3.14159265359/180)
"Cosine of 180 degrees" FROM DUAL;

Cosine of 180 degrees
---------------------
                   -1
 

COSH

Purpose  

Returns the hyperbolic cosine of n.

 

Example  

SELECT COSH(0) "Hyperbolic cosine of 0" FROM DUAL;
 
Hyperbolic cosine of 0
----------------------
                     1 
 

EXP

Purpose  

Returns e raised to the nth power; e = 2.71828183 ...

 

Example  

SELECT EXP(4) "e to the 4th power" FROM DUAL;

e to the 4th power
------------------
          54.59815 
 

FLOOR

Purpose  

Returns largest integer equal to or less than n.

 

Example  

SELECT FLOOR(15.7) "Floor" FROM DUAL;

     Floor
----------
        15
 

LN

Purpose  

Returns the natural logarithm of n, where n is greater than 0.

 

Example  

SELECT LN(95) "Natural log of 95" FROM DUAL;

Natural log of 95
-----------------
       4.55387689  
 

LOG

Purpose  

Returns the logarithm, base m, of n. The base m can be any positive number other than 0 or 1 and n can be any positive number.

 

Example  

SELECT LOG(10,100) "Log base 10 of 100" FROM DUAL;

Log base 10 of 100
------------------
                 2 
 

MOD

Syntax  

MOD(m,n)
 

Purpose  

Returns remainder of m divided by n. Returns m if n is 0.

 

Example  

SELECT MOD(11,4) "Modulus" FROM DUAL;

   Modulus
----------
         3
 

 

This function behaves differently from the classical mathematical modulus function when m is negative. The classical modulus can be expressed using the MOD function with this formula:

m - n * FLOOR(m/n)
 

 

The following statement illustrates the difference between the MOD function and the classical modulus:

SELECT m, n, MOD(m, n),
m - n * FLOOR(m/n) "Classical Modulus"
  FROM test_mod_table;

         M          N   MOD(M,N) Classical Modulus
---------- ---------- ---------- -----------------
        11          4          3                 3
        11         -4          3                -1
       -11          4         -3                 1
       -11         -4         -3                -3  
 

POWER

Purpose  

Returns m raised to the nth power. The base m and the exponent n can be any numbers, but if m is negative, n must be an integer.

 

Example  

SELECT POWER(3,2) "Raised" FROM DUAL;

    Raised
----------
         9
 

ROUND

Syntax
 
ROUND(n[,m])
 
Purpose
 

Returns n rounded to m places right of the decimal point; if m is omitted, to 0 places. m can be negative to round off digits left of the decimal point. m must be an integer.

 

Example 1

 
SELECT ROUND(15.193,1) "Round" FROM DUAL;

     Round
----------
      15.2
 

Example 2

 

SELECT ROUND(15.193,-1) "Round" FROM DUAL;

     Round
----------
        20 
 

SIGN

Syntax  

SIGN(n)
 

Purpose  

If n<0, the function returns -1; if n=0, the function returns 0; if n>0, the function returns 1.

 

Example  

SELECT SIGN(-15) "Sign" FROM DUAL;

      Sign
----------
        -1
 

SIN

Purpose  

Returns the sine of n (an angle expressed in radians).

 

Example  

SELECT SIN(30 * 3.14159265359/180)
 "Sine of 30 degrees" FROM DUAL;

Sine of 30 degrees
------------------
                .5
 

SINH

Purpose  

Returns the hyperbolic sine of n.

 

Example  

SELECT SINH(1) "Hyperbolic sine of 1" FROM DUAL;

Hyperbolic sine of 1
--------------------
          1.17520119
 

SQRT

Purpose  

Returns square root of n. The value n cannot be negative. SQRT returns a "real" result.

 

Example  

SELECT SQRT(26) "Square root" FROM DUAL;

Square root
-----------

5.09901951  

TAN

Purpose  

Returns the tangent of n (an angle expressed in radians).

 

Example  

SELECT TAN(135 * 3.14159265359/180)
"Tangent of 135 degrees"  FROM DUAL;

Tangent of 135 degrees
----------------------
                   - 1
 

TANH

Purpose  

Returns the hyperbolic tangent of n.

 

Example  

SELECT TANH(.5) "Hyperbolic tangent of .5" 
   FROM DUAL;

Hyperbolic tangent of .5
------------------------
              .462117157 
 

TRUNC

Purpose  

Returns n truncated to m decimal places; if m is omitted, to 0 places. m can be negative to truncate (make zero) m digits left of the decimal point.

 

Examples  

SELECT TRUNC(15.79,1) "Truncate" FROM DUAL;

  Truncate
----------
      15.7
 

 

SELECT TRUNC(15.79,-1) "Truncate" FROM DUAL;

  Truncate
----------
        10
 

Character Functions

Single-row character functions accept character input and can return either character or number values.

Character Functions Returning Character Values

This section lists character functions that return character values. Unless otherwise noted, these functions all return values with the datatype VARCHAR2 and are limited in length to 4000 bytes. Functions that return values of datatype CHAR are limited in length to 2000 bytes. If the length of the return value exceeds the limit, Oracle truncates it and returns the result without an error message.

CHR

Syntax  

CHR(n [USING NCHAR_CS])
 

Purpose  

Returns the character having the binary equivalent to n in either the database character set or the national character set.

If the USING NCHAR_CS clause is not specified, this function returns the character having the binary equivalent to n as a VARCHAR2 value in the database character set.

If the USING NCHAR_CS clause is specified, this function returns the character having the binary equivalent to n as a NVARCHAR2 value in the national character set.

 

Example 1  

SELECT CHR(67)||CHR(65)||CHR(84) "Dog"
  FROM DUAL;
Dog
---
CAT
 

Example 2  

SELECT CHR(16705 USING NCHAR_CS) FROM DUAL;
 
C
-
A
 

CONCAT

Syntax  

CONCAT(char1, char2)
 

Purpose  

Returns char1 concatenated with char2. This function is equivalent to the concatenation operator (||). For information on this operator, see "Concatenation Operator".

 

Example  

This example uses nesting to concatenate three character strings:

SELECT CONCAT( CONCAT(ename, ' is a '), job) "Job"
FROM emp
WHERE empno = 7900;

Job
-----------------
JAMES is a CLERK
 

INITCAP

Purpose  

Returns char, with the first letter of each word in uppercase, all other letters in lowercase. Words are delimited by white space or characters that are not alphanumeric.

 

Example  

SELECT INITCAP('the soap') "Capitals" FROM DUAL;

Capitals
---------
The Soap
 

LOWER

Purpose  

Returns char, with all letters lowercase. The return value has the same datatype as the argument char (CHAR or VARCHAR2).

 

Example  

SELECT LOWER('MR. SCOTT MCMILLAN') "Lowercase"
   FROM DUAL;

Lowercase
--------------------
mr. scott mcmillan 
 

LPAD

Purpose  

Returns char1, left-padded to length n with the sequence of characters in char2; char2 defaults to a single blank. If char1 is longer than n, this function returns the portion of char1 that fits in n.

The argument n is the total length of the return value as it is displayed on your terminal screen. In most character sets, this is also the number of characters in the return value. However, in some multibyte character sets, the display length of a character string can differ from the number of characters in the string.

 

Example  

SELECT LPAD('Page 1',15,'*.') "LPAD example"
     FROM DUAL;

LPAD example
---------------
*.*.*.*.*Page 1
 

LTRIM

Syntax  

LTRIM(char [,set])
 

Purpose  

Removes characters from the left of char, with all the leftmost characters that appear in set removed; set defaults to a single blank. Oracle begins scanning char from its first character and removes all characters that appear in set until reaching a character not in set and then returns the result.

 

Example  

SELECT LTRIM('xyxXxyLAST WORD','xy') "LTRIM example"
     FROM DUAL;

LTRIM exampl
------------
XxyLAST WORD
 

NLS_INITCAP

Purpose  

Returns char, with the first letter of each word in uppercase, all other letters in lowercase. Words are delimited by white space or characters that are not alphanumeric. The value of 'nlsparams' can have this form:

'NLS_SORT = sort'

where sort is either a linguistic sort sequence or BINARY. The linguistic sort sequence handles special linguistic requirements for case conversions. Note that these requirements can result in a return value of a different length than the char. If you omit 'nlsparams', this function uses the default sort sequence for your session. For information on sort sequences, see Oracle8 Reference.

 

Example  

SELECT NLS_INITCAP
   ('ijsland', 'NLS_SORT = XDutch') "Capitalized"
   FROM DUAL;

Capital
-------
IJsland
 

NLS_LOWER

Syntax  

NLS_LOWER(char [, 'nlsparams'] )
 

Purpose  

Returns char, with all letters lowercase. The 'nlsparams' can have the same form and serve the same purpose as in the NLS_INITCAP function.

 

Example  

SELECT NLS_LOWER
   ('CITTA''', 'NLS_SORT = XGerman') "Lowercase"
   FROM DUAL;

Lower
-----
cittá
 

NLS_UPPER

Syntax  

NLS_UPPER(char [, 'nlsparams'] )
 

Purpose  

Returns char, with all letters uppercase. The 'nlsparams' can have the same form and serve the same purpose as in the NLS_INITCAP function.

 

Example  

SELECT NLS_UPPER
   ('groe', 'NLS_SORT = XGerman') "Uppercase"
     FROM DUAL;

Upper
-----
GROSS 
 

REPLACE

Syntax  

REPLACE(char,search_string[,replacement_string])
 

Purpose  

Returns char with every occurrence of search_string replaced with replacement_string. If replacement_string is omitted or null, all occurrences of search_string are removed. If search_string is null, char is returned. This function provides a superset of the functionality provided by the TRANSLATE function. TRANSLATE provides single-character, one-to-one substitution. REPLACE allows you to substitute one string for another as well as to remove character strings.

 

Example  

SELECT REPLACE('JACK and JUE','J','BL') "Changes"
     FROM DUAL;

Changes
--------------
BLACK and BLUE
 

RPAD

Syntax  

RPAD(char1, n [,char2])
 

Purpose  

Returns char1, right-padded to length n with char2, replicated as many times as necessary; char2 defaults to a single blank. If char1 is longer than n, this function returns the portion of char1 that fits in n.

The argument n is the total length of the return value as it is displayed on your terminal screen. In most character sets, this is also the number of characters in the return value. However, in some multibyte character sets, the display length of a character string can differ from the number of characters in the string.

 

Example  

SELECT RPAD('MORRISON',12,'ab') "RPAD example"
     FROM DUAL;

RPAD example
-----------------
MORRISONabab
 

RTRIM

Syntax  

RTRIM(char [,set]
 

Purpose  

Returns char, with all the rightmost characters that appear in set removed; set defaults to a single blank. RTRIM works similarly to LTRIM.

 

Example  

SELECT RTRIM('BROWNINGyxXxy','xy') "RTRIM e.g."
     FROM DUAL;
 
RTRIM e.g
-------------
BROWNINGyxX
 

SOUNDEX

Syntax  

SOUNDEX(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns a character string containing the phonetic representation of char. This function allows you to compare words that are spelled differently, but sound alike in English.

 

The phonetic representation is defined in The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, by Donald E. Knuth, as follows:

 

 

 

  • Retain the first letter of the string and remove all other occurrences of the following letters: a, e, h, i, o, u, w, y.
 

 

 

  • Assign numbers to the remaining letters (after the first) as follows:
    b, f, p, v = 1
    c, g, j, k, q, s, x, z = 2
    d, t = 3
    l = 4
    m, n = 5
    r = 6
    
 

 

 

  • If two or more letters with the same assigned number are adjacent, remove all but the first.
 

 

 

  • Return the first four bytes padded with 0.
 

Example  

SELECT ename
     FROM emp
     WHERE SOUNDEX(ename)
         = SOUNDEX('SMYTHE');
 
ENAME
----------
SMITH
 

SUBSTR

Syntax  

SUBSTR(char, m [,n])
 

Purpose  

Returns a portion of char, beginning at character m, n characters long. If m is 0, it is treated as 1. If m is positive, Oracle counts from the beginning of char to find the first character. If m is negative, Oracle counts backwards from the end of char. If n is omitted, Oracle returns all characters to the end of char. If n is less than 1, a null is returned.

Floating-point numbers passed as arguments to substr are automatically converted to integers.

 

Example 1  

SELECT SUBSTR('ABCDEFG',3.1,4) "Subs"
     FROM DUAL;
 
Subs
----
CDEF
 

Example 2  

SELECT SUBSTR('ABCDEFG',-5,4) "Subs"
     FROM DUAL;

Subs
----
CDEF
 

SUBSTRB

Syntax  

SUBSTR(char, m [,n])
 

Purpose  

The same as SUBSTR, except that the arguments m and n are expressed in bytes, rather than in characters. For a single-byte database character set, SUBSTRB is equivalent to SUBSTR.

Floating-point numbers passed as arguments to substrb are automatically converted to integers.

 

Example  

Assume a double-byte database character set:

SELECT SUBSTRB('ABCDEFG',5,4.2)
     "Substring with bytes"
     FROM DUAL;

Substring with bytes
--------------------
CD
 

TRANSLATE

Syntax  

TRANSLATE(char, from, to)
 

Purpose  

Returns char with all occurrences of each character in from replaced by its corresponding character in to. Characters in char that are not in from are not replaced. The argument from can contain more characters than to. In this case, the extra characters at the end of from have no corresponding characters in to. If these extra characters appear in char, they are removed from the return value. You cannot use an empty string for to to remove all characters in from from the return value. Oracle interprets the empty string as null, and if this function has a null argument, it returns null.

 

Example 1  

The following statement translates a license number. All letters 'ABC...Z' are translated to 'X' and all digits '012 . . . 9' are translated to '9':

 

 

SELECT TRANSLATE('2KRW229',
'0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ', 
'9999999999XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX') "License"
     FROM DUAL;
 
License
--------
9XXX999 
 

Example 2  

The following statement returns a license number with the characters removed and the digits remaining:

 

 

SELECT TRANSLATE('2KRW229',
'0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ', 
'0123456789')
"Translate example"
     FROM DUAL;
 
Translate example
-----------------
2229
 

UPPER

Syntax  

UPPER(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns char, with all letters uppercase. The return value has the same datatype as the argument char.

 

Example  

SELECT UPPER('Large') "Uppercase"
     FROM DUAL;

Upper
-----
LARGE
 

Character Functions Returning Number Values

This section lists character functions that return number values.

ASCII

Syntax  

ASCII(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns the decimal representation in the database character set of the first character of char. If your database character set is 7-bit ASCII, this function returns an ASCII value. If your database character set is EBCDIC Code Page 500, this function returns an EBCDIC value. Note that there is no similar EBCDIC character function.

 

Example  

SELECT ASCII('Q') 
     FROM DUAL;
 
ASCII('Q')
----------
        81
 

INSTR

Syntax  

INSTR (char1,char2 [,n[,m]])
 

Purpose  

Searches char1 beginning with its nth character for the mth occurrence of char2 and returns the position of the character in char1 that is the first character of this occurrence. If n is negative, Oracle counts and searches backward from the end of char1. The value of m must be positive. The default values of both n and m are 1, meaning Oracle begins searching at the first character of char1 for the first occurrence of char2. The return value is relative to the beginning of char1, regardless of the value of n, and is expressed in characters. If the search is unsuccessful (if char2 does not appear m times after the nth character of char1) the return value is 0.

 

Example 1  

SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR', 3, 2)
  "Instring" FROM DUAL;
 
  Instring
----------
        14
 

Example 2  

SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR', -3, 2)
"Reversed Instring"
     FROM DUAL;
 
Reversed Instring
-----------------
                2
 

INSTRB

Syntax  

INSTRB(char1,char2[,n[,m]])
 

Purpose  

The same as INSTR, except that n and the return value are expressed in bytes, rather than in characters. For a single-byte database character set, INSTRB is equivalent to INSTR.

 

Example  

This example assumes a double-byte database character set.

SELECT INSTRB('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR',5,2)
"Instring in bytes"
FROM DUAL;

Instring in bytes
-----------------
               27
 

LENGTH

Syntax  

LENGTH(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns the length of char in characters. If char has datatype CHAR, the length includes all trailing blanks. If char is null, this function returns null.

 

Example  

SELECT LENGTH('CANDIDE') "Length in characters"
FROM DUAL;
 
Length in characters
--------------------
                   7
 

LENGTHB

Syntax  

LENGTHB(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns the length of char in bytes. If char is null, this function returns null. For a single-byte database character set, LENGTHB is equivalent to LENGTH.

 

Example  

This example assumes a double-byte database character set.

SELECT LENGTHB ('CANDIDE') "Length in bytes"
     FROM DUAL;
 
Length in bytes
---------------
             14
 

NLSSORT

Syntax  

NLSSORT(char [, 'nlsparams'])
 

Purpose  

Returns the string of bytes used to sort char. The value of 'nlsparams' can have the form

'NLS_SORT = sort'

where sort is a linguistic sort sequence or BINARY. If you omit 'nlsparams', this function uses the default sort sequence for your session. If you specify BINARY, this function returns char. For information on sort sequences, see the discussions of national language support in Oracle8 Reference.  

Example  

This function can be used to specify comparisons based on a linguistic sort sequence rather on the binary value of a string:

SELECT ename FROM emp
   WHERE NLSSORT (ename, 'NLS_SORT = German')
   > NLSSORT ('S', 'NLS_SORT = German') ORDER BY ename;
 
ENAME
----------
SCOTT
SMITH
TURNER
WARD
 

Date Functions

Date functions operate on values of the DATE datatype. All date functions return a value of DATE datatype, except the MONTHS_BETWEEN function, which returns a number.

ADD_MONTHS

Syntax  

ADD_MONTHS(d,n)
 

Purpose  

Returns the date d plus n months. The argument n can be any integer. If d is the last day of the month or if the resulting month has fewer days than the day component of d, then the result is the last day of the resulting month. Otherwise, the result has the same day component as d.

 

Example  

SELECT TO_CHAR(
     ADD_MONTHS(hiredate,1),
     'DD-MON-YYYY') "Next month"
     FROM emp 
     WHERE ename = 'SMITH';

Next Month
-----------
17-JAN-1981
 

LAST_DAY

Syntax  

LAST_DAY(d)
 

Purpose  

Returns the date of the last day of the month that contains d. You might use this function to determine how many days are left in the current month.

 

Example 1  

SELECT SYSDATE,
   LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) "Last",
   LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) - SYSDATE "Days Left"
   FROM DUAL;
 
SYSDATE   Last       Days Left
--------- --------- ----------
23-OCT-97 31-OCT-97          8
 

Example 2  

SELECT TO_CHAR(
  ADD_MONTHS(
    LAST_DAY(hiredate),5),
     'DD-MON-YYYY') "Five months"
  FROM emp 
  WHERE ename = 'MARTIN';
 
Five months
-----------
28-FEB-1982
 

MONTHS_BETWEEN

Syntax  

MONTHS_BETWEEN(d1, d2)
 

Purpose  

Returns number of months between dates d1 and d2. If d1 is later than d2, result is positive; if earlier, negative. If d1 and d2 are either the same days of the month or both last days of months, the result is always an integer; otherwise Oracle calculates the fractional portion of the result based on a 31-day month and considers the difference in time components of d1 and d2.

 

Example  

SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN 
   (TO_DATE('02-02-1995','MM-DD-YYYY'),
    TO_DATE('01-01-1995','MM-DD-YYYY') ) "Months"
    FROM DUAL;
 
    Months
----------
1.03225806
 

NEW_TIME

Syntax  

NEW_TIME(d, z1, z2)
 

Purpose  

Returns the date and time in time zone z2 when date and time in time zone z1 are d. The arguments z1 and z2 can be any of these text strings:

 
 

AST

ADT

 

Atlantic Standard or Daylight Time  

 

BST

BDT

 

Bering Standard or Daylight Time  

 

CST

CDT

 

Central Standard or Daylight Time  

 

EST

EDT

 

Eastern Standard or Daylight Time  

 

GMT

 

Greenwich Mean Time  

 

HST

HDT

 

Alaska-Hawaii Standard Time or Daylight Time.  

 

MST

MDT

 

Mountain Standard or Daylight Time  

 

NST

 

Newfoundland Standard Time  

 

PST

PDT

 

Pacific Standard or Daylight Time  

 

YST

YDT

 

Yukon Standard or Daylight Time  

NEXT_DAY

Syntax  

NEXT_DAY(d, char)  

Purpose  

Returns the date of the first weekday named by char that is later than the date d. The argument char must be a day of the week in your session's date language-either the full name or the abbreviation. The minimum number of letters required is the number of letters in the abbreviated version; any characters immediately following the valid abbreviation are ignored. The return value has the same hours, minutes, and seconds component as the argument d.  

Example  

This example returns the date of the next Tuesday after March 15, 1992.

SELECT NEXT_DAY('15-MAR-92','TUESDAY') "NEXT DAY"
     FROM DUAL;
 
NEXT DAY
---------
17-MAR-92 
 

ROUND

Syntax  

ROUND(d[,fmt])
 

Purpose  

Returns d rounded to the unit specified by the format model fmt. If you omit fmt, d is rounded to the nearest day. See "ROUND and TRUNC" for the permitted format models to use in fmt.

 

Example  

SELECT ROUND (TO_DATE ('27-OCT-92'),'YEAR')
   "New Year" FROM DUAL;
 
New Year
---------
01-JAN-93 
 

SYSDATE

Syntax  

SYSDATE
 

Purpose  

Returns the current date and time. Requires no arguments. In distributed SQL statements, this function returns the date and time on your local database. You cannot use this function in the condition of a CHECK constraint.

 

Example  

SELECT TO_CHAR
    (SYSDATE, 'MM-DD-YYYY HH24:MI:SS')"NOW"
     FROM DUAL;
NOW
-------------------
10-29-1993 20:27:11 
 

TRUNC

Syntax  

1TRUNC(d,[fmt]) 
 

Purpose  

Returns d with the time portion of the day truncated to the unit specified by the format model fmt. If you omit fmt, d is truncated to the nearest day. See "ROUND and TRUNC" for the permitted format models to use in fmt.

 

Example  

SELECT TRUNC(TO_DATE('27-OCT-92','DD-MON-YY'), 'YEAR')
  "New Year" FROM DUAL;
 
New Year
---------
01-JAN-92 
 

ROUND and TRUNC

Table 3-11 lists the format models you can use with the ROUND and TRUNC date functions and the units to which they round and truncate dates. The default model, 'DD', returns the date rounded or truncated to the day with a time of midnight.

Table 3-11 Date Format Models for the ROUND and TRUNC Date Functions
Format Model   Rounding or Truncating Unit  
CC
SCC
 

One greater than the first two digits of a four-digit year.  

SYYYY
YYYY
YEAR
SYEAR
YYY
YY
Y
 

Year (rounds up on July 1)  

IYYY
IY
IY
I
 

ISO Year  

Q
 

Quarter (rounds up on the sixteenth day of the second month of the quarter)  

MONTH
MON
MM
RM
 

Month (rounds up on the sixteenth day)  

WW
 

Same day of the week as the first day of the year.  

IW
 

Same day of the week as the first day of the ISO year.  

W
 

Same day of the week as the first day of the month.  

DDD
DD
J
 

Day  

DAY
DY
D
 

Starting day of the week  

HH
HH12
HH24
 

Hour  

MI
 

Minute  

The starting day of the week used by the format models DAY, DY, and D is specified implicitly by the initialization parameter NLS_TERRITORY. For information on this parameter, see Oracle8 Reference.

Conversion Functions

Conversion functions convert a value from one datatype to another. Generally, the form of the function names follows the convention datatype TO datatype. The first datatype is the input datatype; the last datatype is the output datatype. This section lists the SQL conversion functions.

CHARTOROWID

Syntax  

CHARTOROWID(char)
 

Purpose  

Converts a value from CHAR or VARCHAR2 datatype to ROWID datatype.

 

Example  

SELECT ename FROM emp
   WHERE ROWID = CHARTOROWID('AAAAfZAABAAACp8AAO');
 
ENAME
----------
LEWIS
 

CONVERT

Syntax  

CONVERT(char, dest_char_set [,source_char_set] )
 

Purpose  

Converts a character string from one character set to another.

The char argument is the value to be converted.

The dest_char_set argument is the name of the character set to which char is converted.

The source_char_set argument is the name of the character set in which char is stored in the database. The default value is the database character set.

 

 

Both the destination and source character set arguments can be either literals or columns containing the name of the character set.

For complete correspondence in character conversion, it is essential that the destination character set contains a representation of all the characters defined in the source character set. Where a character does not exist in the destination character set, a replacement character appears. Replacement characters can be defined as part of a character set definition.

 

Example  

SELECT CONVERT('Groß', 'US7ASCII', 'WE8HP') 
"Conversion"
  FROM DUAL;

Conversion
----------
Gross
 

 

Common character sets include:

 

 

US7ASCII

WE8DEC

WE8HP

F7DEC

WE8EBCDIC500

WE8PC850

WE8ISO8859P1

 

US 7-bit ASCII character set

DEC West European 8-bit character set

HP West European Laserjet 8-bit character set

DEC French 7-bit character set

IBM West European EBCDIC Code Page 500

IBM PC Code Page 850

ISO 8859-1 West European 8-bit character set  

HEXTORAW

Syntax  

HEXTORAW(char)
 

Purpose  

Converts char containing hexadecimal digits to a raw value.

 

Example  

INSERT INTO graphics (raw_column)
  SELECT HEXTORAW('7D') FROM DUAL;
 

RAWTOHEX

Syntax  

RAWTOHEX(raw)
 

Purpose  

Converts raw to a character value containing its hexadecimal equivalent.

 

Example  

SELECT RAWTOHEX(raw_column) "Graphics"
   FROM graphics;

Graphics
--------
7D  
 

ROWIDTOCHAR

Syntax  

ROWIDTOCHAR(rowid)
 

Purpose  

Converts a ROWID value to VARCHAR2 datatype. The result of this conversion is always 18 characters long.

 

Example  

SELECT ROWID 
     FROM offices
     WHERE 
     ROWIDTOCHAR(ROWID) LIKE '%Br1AAB%';

ROWID
------------------
AAAAZ6AABAAABr1AAB
 

TO_CHAR, date conversion

Syntax  

TO_CHAR(d [, fmt [, 'nlsparams'] ])
 

Purpose  

Converts d of DATE datatype to a value of VARCHAR2 datatype in the format specified by the date format fmt. If you omit fmt, d is converted to a VARCHAR2 value in the default date format. For information on date formats, see "Format Models".

 

 

The 'nlsparams' specifies the language in which month and day names and abbreviations are returned. This argument can have this form:

'NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE = language'

If you omit nlsparams, this function uses the default date language for your session.

 

Example  

SELECT TO_CHAR(HIREDATE, 'Month DD, YYYY')
    "New date format" FROM emp
    WHERE ename = 'BLAKE';
 
New date format
------------------
May       01, 1981
 

TO_CHAR, number conversion

Syntax  

TO_CHAR(n [, fmt [, 'nlsparams'] ])
 

Purpose

 

Converts n of NUMBER datatype to a value of VARCHAR2 datatype, using the optional number format fmt. If you omit fmt, n is converted to a VARCHAR2 value exactly long enough to hold its significant digits. For information on number formats, see "Format Models".

 

The 'nlsparams' specifies these characters that are returned by number format elements:

- decimal character

- group separator

- local currency symbol

- international currency symbol

This argument can have this form:

'NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS = ''dg''
NLS_CURRENCY = ''text''
NLS_ISO_CURRENCY = territory '
 

 

The characters d and g represent the decimal character and group separator, respectively. They must be different single-byte characters. Note that within the quoted string, you must use two single quotation marks around the parameter values. Ten characters are available for the currency symbol.

 

 

If you omit 'nlsparams' or any one of the parameters, this function uses the default parameter values for your session.

 

Example 1  

In this example, the output is blank padded to the left of the currency symbol.

SELECT TO_CHAR(-10000,'L99G999D99MI') "Amount"
     FROM DUAL;

Amount
--------------
  $10,000.00-
 
Example 2
 
SELECT TO_CHAR(-10000,'L99G999D99MI',
'NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS = '',.''
NLS_CURRENCY = ''AusDollars'' ') "Amount"
     FROM DUAL;

Amount
-------------------
AusDollars10.000,00-
 

Notes:

  • In the optional number format fmt, L designates local currency symbol and MI designates a trailing minus sign. See Table 3-13 for a complete listing of number format elements.
 
  • During a conversion of Oracle numbers to string, if a rounding operation occurs that overflows or underflows the Oracle NUMBER range, then ~ or -~ may be returned, representing infinity and negative infinity, respectively. This event typically occurs when you are using TO_CHAR() with a restrictive number format string, causing a rounding operation.
 

TO_DATE

Syntax  

TO_DATE(char [, fmt [, 'nlsparams'] ])
 

Purpose  

Converts char of CHAR or VARCHAR2 datatype to a value of DATE datatype. The fmt is a date format specifying the format of char. If you omit fmt, char must be in the default date format. If fmt is 'J', for Julian, then char must be an integer. For information on date formats, see "Format Models".

The 'nlsparams' has the same purpose in this function as in the TO_CHAR function for date conversion.

Do not use the TO_DATE function with a DATE value for the char argument. The returned DATE value can have a different century value than the original char, depending on fmt or the default date format.

For information on date formats, see "Date Format Models".

 

Example  

INSERT INTO bonus (bonus_date)
  SELECT TO_DATE(
    'January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.',
    'Month dd, YYYY, HH:MI A.M.',
     'NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE = American')
     FROM DUAL;
 

TO_MULTI_BYTE

Syntax  

TO_MULTI_BYTE(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns char with all of its single-byte characters converted to their corresponding multibyte characters. Any single-byte characters in char that have no multibyte equivalents appear in the output string as single-byte characters. This function is only useful if your database character set contains both single-byte and multibyte characters.

 

TO_NUMBER

Syntax  

TO_NUMBER(char [,fmt [, 'nlsparams'] ])
 

Purpose  

Converts char, a value of CHAR or VARCHAR2 datatype containing a number in the format specified by the optional format model fmt, to a value of NUMBER datatype.

 

Example 1  

UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + 
   TO_NUMBER('100.00', '9G999D99')
  WHERE ename = 'BLAKE';
 

 

The 'nlsparams' string in this function has the same purpose as it does in the TO_CHAR function for number conversions.

 

Example 2  

SELECT TO_NUMBER('-AusDollars100','L9G999D99',
   ' NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS = '',.''
     NLS_CURRENCY            = ''AusDollars''
   ') "Amount"
     FROM DUAL;

    Amount
----------
      -100
 

TO_SINGLE_BYTE

Syntax  

TO_SINGLE_BYTE(char)
 

Purpose  

Returns char with all of its multibyte character converted to their corresponding single-byte characters. Any multibyte characters in char that have no single-byte equivalents appear in the output as multibyte characters. This function is only useful if your database character set contains both single-byte and multibyte characters.

 

TRANSLATE USING

Syntax  

TRANSLATE(text USING {CHAR_CS | NCHAR_CS })
 

Purpose  

Converts text into the character set specified for conversions between the database character set and the national character set.

The text argument is the expression to be converted.

Specifying the USING CHAR_CS argument converts text into the database character set. The output datatype is VARCHAR2.

Specifying the USING NCHAR_CS argument converts text into the national character set. The output datatype is NVARCHAR2.

This function is similar to the Oracle CONVERT function, but must be used instead of CONVERT if either the input or the output datatype is being used as NCHAR or NVARCHAR2.

 

Example 1  

CREATE TABLE t1 (char_col  CHAR(20),
                  nchar_col nchar(20));
INSERT INTO t1 
  VALUES ('Hi', N'Bye');
SELECT * FROM t1;

CHAR_COL     NCHAR_COL
--------     ---------
Hi           Bye
 

Example 2  

UPDATE t1 SET
  nchar_col = TRANSLATE(char_col USING NCHAR_CS);
UPDATE t1 SET
  char_col = TRANSLATE(nchar_col USING CHAR_CS);
SELECT * FROM t1;

CHAR_COL     NCHAR_COL
--------     ---------
Hi           Hi
 

Example 3  

UPDATE t1 SET
  nchar_col = TRANSLATE('deo' USING NCHAR_CS);
UPDATE t1 SET
  char_col = TRANSLATE(N'deo' USING CHAR_CS);

CHAR_COL     NCHAR_COL
--------     ---------
deo          deo
 

Other Single-Row Functions

DUMP

Syntax  

DUMP(expr[,return_format[,start_position[,length]] ] )
 

Purpose  

Returns a VARCHAR2 value containing the datatype code, length in bytes, and internal representation of expr. The returned result is always in the database character set. For the datatype corresponding to each code, see Table 2-1.

The argument return_format specifies the format of the return value and can have any of the values listed below.

By default, the return value contains no character set information. To retrieve the character set name of expr, specify any of the format values below, plus 1000. For example, a return_format of 1008 returns the result in octal, plus provides the character set name of expr.

 

 

8

 

returns result in octal notation.  

 

10

 

returns result in decimal notation.  

 

16

 

returns result in hexadecimal notation.  

 

17

 

returns result as single characters.  

 

The arguments start_position and length combine to determine which portion of the internal representation to return. The default is to return the entire internal representation in decimal notation.

If expr is null, this function returns 'NULL'.

 

Example 1  

SELECT DUMP('abc', 1016)
 FROM DUAL;

DUMP('ABC',1016)                          
------------------------------------------ 
Typ=96 Len=3 CharacterSet=WE8DEC: 61,62,63 
 

Example 2  

SELECT DUMP(ename, 8, 3, 2) "OCTAL"
 FROM emp
 WHERE ename = 'SCOTT';

OCTAL
----------------------------
Type=1 Len=5: 117,124 
 

Example 3  

SELECT DUMP(ename, 10, 3, 2) "ASCII"
FROM emp
WHERE ename = 'SCOTT';

ASCII
----------------------------
Type=1 Len=5: 79,84
 

EMPTY_[B | C]LOB

Syntax  

EMPTY_[B|C]LOB()
 

Purpose  

Returns an empty LOB locator that can be used to initialize a LOB variable or in an INSERT or UPDATE statement to initialize a LOB column or attribute to EMPTY. EMPTY means that the LOB is initialized, but not populated with data.

You cannot use the locator returned from this function as a parameter to the DBMS_LOB package or the OCI.

 

Examples  

INSERT INTO lob_tab1 VALUES (EMPTY_BLOB());
UPDATE lob_tab1 
  SET clob_col = EMPTY_BLOB();
 

BFILENAME

Syntax  

BFILENAME ('directory', 'filename')
 

Purpose  

Returns a BFILE locator that is associated with a physical LOB binary file on the server's file system. A directory is an alias for a full pathname on the server's file system where the files are actually located; 'filename' is the name of the file in the server's file system.

Neither 'directory' nor 'filename' need to point to an existing object on the file system at the time you specify BFILENAME. However, you must associate a BFILE value with a physical file before performing subsequent SQL, PL/SQL, DBMS_LOB package, or OCI operations. For more information, see CREATE DIRECTORY.

 

 

Note: This function does not verify that either the directory or file specified actually exists. Therefore, you can call the CREATE DIRECTORY command after BFILENAME. However, the object must exist by the time you actually use the BFILE locator (for example, as a parameter to one of the OCILob or DBMS_LOB operations such as OCILobFileOpen() or DBMS_LOB.FILEOPEN()).

For more information about LOBs, see Oracle8 Application Developer's Guide and Oracle Call Interface Programmer's Guide.

 

Example  

INSERT INTO file_tbl
   VALUES (BFILENAME ('lob_dir1', 'image1.gif'));
 

GREATEST

Syntax  

GREATEST(expr [,expr] ...)
 

Purpose  

Returns the greatest of the list of exprs. All exprs after the first are implicitly converted to the datatype of the first exprs before the comparison. Oracle compares the exprs using nonpadded comparison semantics. Character comparison is based on the value of the character in the database character set. One character is greater than another if it has a higher value. If the value returned by this function is character data, its datatype is always VARCHAR2.

 

Example  

SELECT GREATEST ('HARRY', 'HARRIOT', 'HAROLD')
   "Great" FROM DUAL;
 
Great
-----
HARRY
 

LEAST

Syntax  

LEAST(expr [,expr] ...)
 

Purpose  

Returns the least of the list of exprs. All exprs after the first are implicitly converted to the datatype of the first expr before the comparison. Oracle compares the exprs using nonpadded comparison semantics. If the value returned by this function is character data, its datatype is always VARCHAR2.

 

Example  

SELECT LEAST('HARRY','HARRIOT','HAROLD') "LEAST"
     FROM DUAL;
 
LEAST
------

HAROLD  

NLS_CHARSET_DECL_LEN

Syntax  

NLS_CHARSET_DECL_LEN(bytecnt, csid)
 

Purpose  

Returns the declaration width (in number of characters) of an NCHAR column. The bytecnt argument is the width of the column. The csid argument is the character set ID of the column.  

Example  

SELECT NLS_CHARSET_DECL_LEN
  (200, nls_charset_id('ja16eucfixed')) 
   FROM DUAL; 

NLS_CHARSET_DECL_LEN(200,NLS_CHARSET_ID('JA16EUCFIXED')) 
--------------------------------------------------------
                    100 
 

NLS_CHARSET_ID

Syntax  

NLS_CHARSET_ID(text)
 

Purpose  

Returns the NLS character set ID number corresponding to NLS character set name, text. The text argument is a run-time VARCHAR2 value. The text value 'CHAR_CS' returns the server's database character set ID number. The text value 'NCHAR_CS' returns the server's national character set ID number.

Invalid character set names return null.

For a list of character set names, see Oracle8 Reference.

 

Example I

 

SELECT NLS_CHARSET_ID('ja16euc') 
  FROM DUAL; 
 
NLS_CHARSET_ID('JA16EUC')
------------------------- 
                      830
 

Example 2

 

SELECT NLS_CHARSET_ID('char_cs') 
  FROM DUAL; 

 NLS_CHARSET_ID('CHAR_CS')
 ------------------------- 
                         2 
 

Example 3

 

SELECT NLS_CHARSET_ID('nchar_cs') 
  FROM DUAL;  

NLS_CHARSET_ID('NCHAR_CS') 
--------------------------
                         2
 

NLS_CHARSET_NAME

Syntax  

NLS_CHARSET_NAME(n)
 

Purpose  

Returns the name of the NLS character set corresponding to ID number n. The character set name is returned as a VARCHAR2 value in the database character set.

If n is not recognized as a valid character set ID, this function returns null.

For a list of character set IDs, see Oracle8 Reference.

 

Example  

SELECT NLS_CHARSET_NAME(2)
  FROM DUAL;

NLS_CH 
------ 
WE8DEC
 

NVL

Syntax  

NVL(expr1, expr2)
 

Purpose  

If expr1 is null, returns expr2; if expr1 is not null, returns expr1. The arguments expr1 and expr2 can have any datatype. If their datatypes are different, Oracle converts expr2 to the datatype of expr1 before comparing them. The datatype of the return value is always the same as the datatype of expr1, unless expr1 is character data, in which case the return value's datatype is VARCHAR2.

 

Example  

SELECT ename, NVL(TO_CHAR(COMM), 'NOT 
APPLICABLE')
   "COMMISSION" FROM emp
   WHERE deptno = 30;
 
ENAME      COMMISSION
---------- -------------------------------------
ALLEN      300
WARD       500
MARTIN     1400
BLAKE      NOT APPLICABLE
TURNER     0
JAMES      NOT APPLICABLE
 

UID

Syntax  

UID
 

Purpose  

Returns an integer that uniquely identifies the current user.

 

USER

Syntax  

USER
 

Purpose  

Returns the current Oracle user with the datatype VARCHAR2. Oracle compares values of this function with blank-padded comparison semantics.

In a distributed SQL statement, the UID and USER functions identify the user on your local database. You cannot use these functions in the condition of a CHECK constraint.

 

Example  

SELECT USER, UID FROM DUAL;
 
USER                                  UID
------------------------------ ----------
SCOTT                                  19
 

USERENV

Syntax  

USERENV(option)
 

Purpose  

Returns information of VARCHAR2 datatype about the current session. This information can be useful for writing an application-specific audit trail table or for determining the language-specific characters currently used by your session. You cannot use USERENV in the condition of a CHECK constraint. The argument option can have any of these values:

 

 

'ISDBA'
 

returns 'TRUE' if you currently have the ISDBA role enabled and 'FALSE' if you do not.  

 

'LANGUAGE'
 

returns the language and territory currently used by your session along with the database character set in this form:

language_territory.characterset
 

 

'TERMINAL'
 

returns the operating system identifier for your current session's terminal. In distributed SQL statements, this option returns the identifier for your local session. In a distributed environment, this is supported only for remote SELECTs, not for remote INSERTs, UPDATEs, or DELETEs.  

 

'SESSIONID'
 

returns your auditing session identifier. You cannot use this option in distributed SQL statements. To use this keyword in USERENV, the initialization parameter AUDIT_TRAIL must be set to TRUE.  

 

'ENTRYID'
 

returns available auditing entry identifier. You cannot use this option in distributed SQL statements. To use this keyword in USERENV, the initialization parameter AUDIT_TRAIL must be set to TRUE.  

 

'LANG'
 

Returns the ISO abbreviation for the language name, a shorter form than the existing 'LANGUAGE' parameter.  

 

'INSTANCE'
 

Returns the instance identification number of the current instance.  

Example  

SELECT USERENV('LANGUAGE') "Language" FROM DUAL;

Language
-----------------------------------
AMERICAN_AMERICA.WE8DEC
 


VSIZE

Syntax  

VSIZE(expr)
 

Purpose  

Returns the number of bytes in the internal representation of expr. If expr is null, this function returns null.

 

Example  

SELECT ename, VSIZE (ename) "BYTES"      
  FROM emp
  WHERE deptno = 10;
 
ENAME           BYTES
---------- ----------
CLARK               5
KING                4
MILLER              6
 

Object Reference Functions

Object reference functions manipulate REFs-references to objects of specified object types. For more information about REFs, see Oracle8 Concepts and Oracle8 Application Developer's Guide.

DEREF

Syntax  

DEREF(e)
 

Purpose  

Returns the object reference of argument e. Argument e must be an expression that returns a REF to an object.

 

Example  

CREATE TABLE tb1(c1 NUMBER, c2 REF t1);
SELECT DEREF(c2) FROM tb1;
 

REFTOHEX

Syntax  

REFTOHEX(r)
 

Purpose  

Converts argument r to a character value containing its hexadecimal equivalent.

 

Example  

CREATE TABLE tb1(c1 NUMBER, c2 REF t1);
SELECT REFTOHEX(c2) FROM tb1;
 

MAKE_REF

Syntax  

MAKE_REF(table, key [,key...])
 

Purpose  

Creates a REF to a row of an object view using key as the primary key. For more information about object views, see Oracle8 Application Developer's Guide.

 

Example  

CREATE TYPE t1 AS OBJECT(a NUMBER, b NUMBER);

CREATE TABLE tb1 
   (c1 NUMBER, c2 NUMBER, PRIMARY KEY(c1, c2));

CREATE VIEW v1 OF t1 WITH OBJECT OID(a, b) AS
   SELECT * FROM tb1;

SELECT MAKE_REF(v1, 1, 3) FROM DUAL;
 

Group Functions

Group functions return results based on groups of rows, rather than on single rows. In this way, group functions are different from single-row functions. For a discussion of the differences between group functions and single-row functions, see "SQL Functions".

Many group functions accept these options:

DISTINCT  

This option causes a group function to consider only distinct values of the argument expression.  

ALL  

This option causes a group function to consider all values, including all duplicates.  

For example, the DISTINCT average of 1, 1, 1, and 3 is 2; the ALL average is 1.5. If neither option is specified, the default is ALL.

All group functions except COUNT(*) ignore nulls. You can use the NVL in the argument to a group function to substitute a value for a null.

If a query with a group function returns no rows or only rows with nulls for the argument to the group function, the group function returns null.

AVG

Syntax  

AVG([DISTINCT|ALL] n)
 

Purpose  

Returns average value of n.

 

Example  

SELECT AVG(sal) "Average"
   FROM emp;

   Average
----------
2077.21429
 

COUNT

Syntax  

COUNT({* | [DISTINCT|ALL] expr})
 

Purpose  

Returns the number of rows in the query.

If you specify expr, this function returns rows where expr is not null. You can count either all rows, or only distinct values of expr.

If you specify the asterisk (*), this function returns all rows, including duplicates and nulls.

 

Example 1  

SELECT COUNT(*) "Total"
   FROM emp;
 
   Total
----------
      18
 

Example 2  

SELECT COUNT(job) "Count"
   FROM emp;
 
   Count
----------
      14
 

Example 3  

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT job) "Jobs"
     FROM emp;
 
      Jobs
----------
        5
 

MAX

Syntax  

MAX([DISTINCT|ALL] expr)
 

Purpose  

Returns maximum value of expr.

 

Example  

SELECT MAX(sal) "Maximum" FROM emp;
 
   Maximum
----------
      5000
 

MIN

Syntax  

MIN([DISTINCT|ALL] expr)
 

Purpose  

Returns minimum value of expr.

 

Example  

SELECT MIN(hiredate) "Earliest" FROM emp;
 
Earliest
---------
17-DEC-80
 

STDDEV

Syntax  

STDDEV([DISTINCT|ALL] x)
 

Purpose  

Returns standard deviation of x, a number. Oracle calculates the standard deviation as the square root of the variance defined for the VARIANCE group function.

 

Example  

SELECT STDDEV(sal) "Deviation"
     FROM emp;
 
 Deviation
----------
1182.50322
 

SUM

Syntax  

SUM([DISTINCT|ALL] n)
 

Purpose  

Returns sum of values of n.

 

Example  

SELECT SUM(sal) "Total"
     FROM emp;
 
     Total
----------
     29081
 

VARIANCE

Syntax  

VARIANCE([DISTINCT|ALL]x)
 

Purpose  

Returns variance of x, a number. Oracle calculates the variance of x using this formula:

 

 

 

 

where:

xi is one of the elements of x.

n is the number of elements in the set x. If n is 1, the variance is defined to be 0.

 

Example  

SELECT VARIANCE(sal) "Variance"
     FROM emp;
 
Variance
----------
1389313.87
 

User Functions

You can write your own user functions in PL/SQL to provide functionality that is not available in SQL or SQL functions. User functions are used in a SQL statement anywhere SQL functions can be used; that is, wherever expression can occur.

For example, user functions can be used in the following:

For a complete description on the creation and use of user functions, see Oracle8 Application Developer's Guide.

Prerequisites

User functions must be created as top-level PL/SQL functions or declared with a package specification before they can be named within a SQL statement. Create user functions as top-level PL/SQL functions by using the CREATE FUNCTION statement described in CREATE FUNCTION. Specify packaged functions with a package with the CREATE PACKAGE statement described in CREATE PACKAGE.

To call a packaged user function, you must declare the RESTRICT_REFERENCES pragma in the package specification.

Privileges Required

To use a user function in a SQL expression, you must own or have EXECUTE privilege on the user function. To query a view defined with a user function, you must have SELECT privileges on the view. No separate EXECUTE privileges are needed to select from the view.

Restrictions on User Functions

User functions cannot be used in situations that require an unchanging definition. Thus, a user function cannot:

Name Precedence

With PL/SQL, the names of database columns take precedence over the names of functions with no parameters. For example, if user SCOTT creates the following two objects in his own schema:

CREATE TABLE emp(new_sal NUMBER, ...);
CREATE FUNCTION new_sal RETURN NUMBER IS BEGIN ... END;

then in the following two statements, the reference to NEW_SAL refers to the column EMP.NEW_SAL:

SELECT new_sal FROM emp;
SELECT emp.new_sal FROM emp;

To access the function NEW_SAL, you would enter:

SELECT scott.new_sal FROM emp;

Here are some sample calls to user functions that are allowed in SQL expressions.

circle_area (radius)
payroll.tax_rate (empno)
scott.payroll.tax_rate (dependent, empno)@ny
Example

For example, to call the TAX_RATE user function from schema SCOTT, execute it against the SS_NO and SAL columns in TAX_TABLE, and place the results in the variable INCOME_TAX, specify the following:

SELECT scott.tax_rate (ss_no, sal)
    INTO income_tax
    FROM tax_table
    WHERE ss_no = tax_id;

Naming Conventions

If only one of the optional schema or package names is given, the first identifier can be either a schema name or a package name. For example, to determine whether PAYROLL in the reference PAYROLL.TAX_RATE is a schema or package name, Oracle proceeds as follows:

You can also refer to a stored top-level function using any synonym that you have defined for it.

Format Models

A format model is a character literal that describes the format of DATE or NUMBER data stored in a character string. You can use a format model as an argument of the TO_CHAR or TO_DATE function:

Note that a format model does not change the internal representation of the value in the database.

This section describes how to use:

Changing the Return Format

You can use a format model to specify the format for Oracle to use to return values from the database to you.

Example 1

The following statement selects the commission values of the employees in Department 30 and uses the TO_CHAR function to convert these commissions into character values with the format specified by the number format model '$9,990.99':

SELECT ename employee, TO_CHAR(comm, '$9,990.99') commission
   FROM emp
   WHERE deptno = 30;
 
EMPLOYEE   COMMISSION
---------- ----------
ALLEN         $300.00
WARD          $500.00
MARTIN      $1,400.00
BLAKE
TURNER          $0.00
JAMES

Because of this format model, Oracle returns commissions with leading dollar signs, commas every three digits, and two decimal places. Note that TO_CHAR returns null for all employees with null in the COMM column.

Example 2

The following statement selects the date on which each employee from department 20 was hired and uses the TO_CHAR function to convert these dates to character strings with the format specified by the date format model 'fmMonth DD, YYYY':

 SELECT ename, TO_CHAR(Hiredate,'fmMonth DD, YYYY') hiredate
    FROM emp
    WHERE deptno = 20;
 
ENAME      HIREDATE
---------- ------------------
SMITH      December 17, 1980
JONES      April 2, 1981
SCOTT      April 19, 1987
ADAMS      May 23, 1987
FORD       December 3, 1981
LEWIS      October 23, 1997

With this format model, Oracle returns the hire dates with the month spelled out (as specified by "fm" and discussed in "Format Model Modifiers"), two digits for the day, and the century included in the year.

Supplying the Correct Format

You can use format models to specify the format of a value that you are converting from one datatype to another datatype required for a column. When you insert or update a column value, the datatype of the value that you specify must correspond to the column's datatype. For example, a value that you insert into a DATE column must be a value of the DATE datatype or a character string in the default date format (Oracle implicitly converts character strings in the default date format to the DATE datatype). If the value is in another format, you must use the TO_DATE function to convert the value to the DATE datatype. You must also use a format model to specify the format of the character string.

Example

The following statement updates BAKER's hire date using the TO_DATE function with the format mask 'YYYY MM DD' to convert the character string '1992 05 20' to a DATE value:

UPDATE emp 
  SET hiredate = TO_DATE('1992 05 20','YYYY MM DD') 
  WHERE ename = 'BLAKE'; 

Number Format Models

You can use number format models

All number format models cause the number to be rounded to the specified number of significant digits. If a value has more significant digits to the left of the decimal place than are specified in the format, pound signs (#) replace the value. If a positive value is extremely large and cannot be represented in the specified format, then the infinity sign (~) replaces the value. Likewise, if a negative value is extremely small and cannot be represented by the specified format, then the negative infinity sign replaces the value (-~).

Number Format Elements

A number format model is composed of one or more number format elements. Table 3-12 lists the elements of a number format model. Examples are shown in Table 3-13.

Example

Table 3-13 shows the results of the following query for different values of number and 'fmt':

SELECT TO_CHAR(number, 'fmt')
  FROM DUAL




 

Table 3-13 Results of Example Number Conversions
number   'fmt'   Result  

-1234567890  

9999999999S  

'1234567890-'  

0  

99.99  

' .00'  

+0.1  

99.99  

' 0.10'  

-0.2  

99.99  

' -.20'  

0  

90.99  

' 0.00'  

+0.1  

90.99  

' 0.10'  

-0.2  

90.99  

' -0.20'  

0  

9999  

' 0'  

1  

9999  

' 1'  

0  

B9999  

' '  

1  

B9999  

' 1'  

0  

B90.99  

' '  

+123.456  

999.999  

' 123.456'  

-123.456  

999.999  

'-123.456'  

+123.456  

FM999.009  

'123.456'  

+123.456  

9.9EEEE  

' 1.2E+02'  

+1E+123  

9.9EEEE  

' 1.0E+123'  

+123.456  

FM9.9EEEE  

'1.23E+02'  

+123.45  

FM999.009  

'123.45'  

+123.0  

FM999.009  

'123.00'  

+123.45  

L999.99  

' $123.45'  

+123.45  

FML99.99  

'$123.45'  

+1234567890  

9999999999S  

'1234567890+'  

The MI and PR format elements can appear only in the last position of a number format model. The S format element can appear only in the first or last position of a number format model.

The characters returned by some of these format elements are specified by initialization parameters. Table 3-14 lists these elements and parameters.

Table 3-14 Number Format Element Values Determined by Initialization Parameters
Element   Description   Initialization Parameter  

D  

Decimal character  

NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTER  

G  

Group separator  

NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTER  

C  

ISO currency symbol  

NLS_ISO_CURRENCY  

L  

Local currency symbol  

NLS_CURRENCY  

You can specify the characters returned by these format elements implicitly using the initialization parameter NLS_TERRITORY. For information on these parameters, see Oracle8 Reference.

You can change the characters returned by these format elements for your session with the ALTER SESSION command. You can also change the default date format for your session with the ALTER SESSION command. For information, see ALTER SESSION.

Date Format Models

You can use date format models

Default Date Format

The default date format is specified either explicitly with the initialization parameter NLS_DATE_FORMAT or implicitly with the initialization parameter NLS_TERRITORY. For information on these parameters, see Oracle8 Referencee.

You can change the default date format for your session with the ALTER SESSION command. For information, see ALTER SESSION.

Maximum Length

The total length of a date format model cannot exceed 22 characters.

Date Format Elements

A date format model is composed of one or more date format elements as listed in Table 3-15. For input format models, format items cannot appear twice, and format items that represent similar information cannot be combined. For example, you cannot use 'SYYYY' and 'BC' in the same format string. Only some of the date format elements can be used in the TO_DATE function as noted in Table 3-15.

Table 3-15 Date Format Elements
Element   Specify in TO_DATE?   Meaning  
-
/
,
.
;
:
'text'
 

Yes  

Punctuation and quoted text is reproduced in the result.  

AD
A.D.
 

Yes  

AD indicator with or without periods.  

AM
A.M.
 

Yes  

Meridian indicator with or without periods.  

BC
B.C.
 

Yes  

BC indicator with or without periods.  

CC
SCC
 

No  

One greater than the first two digits of a four-digit year; "S" prefixes BC dates with "-". For example, '20' from '1900'.  

D
 

Yes  

Day of week (1-7).  

DAY
 

Yes  

Name of day, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters.  

DD
 

Yes  

Day of month (1-31).  

DDD
 

Yes  

Day of year (1-366).  

DY
 

Yes  

Abbreviated name of day.  

E
 

No  

Abbreviated era name (Japanese Imperial, ROC Official, and Thai Buddha calendars).  

EE
 

No  

Full era name (Japanese Imperial, ROC Official, and Thai Buddha calendars).  

HH
 

Yes  

Hour of day (1-12).  

HH12
 

No  

Hour of day (1-12).  

HH24
 

Yes  

Hour of day (0-23).  

IW
 

No  

Week of year (1-52 or 1-53) based on the ISO standard.  

IYY
IY
I
 

No  

Last 3, 2, or 1 digit(s) of ISO year.  

IYYY
 

No  

4-digit year based on the ISO standard.  

J
 

Yes  

Julian day; the number of days since January 1, 4712 BC. Number specified with 'J' must be integers.  

MI
 

Yes  

Minute (0-59).  

MM
 

Yes  

Month (01-12; JAN = 01)  

MON
 

Yes  

Abbreviated name of month.  

MONTH
 

Yes  

Name of month, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters.  

PM
P.M.
 

No  

Meridian indicator with or without periods.  

Q
 

No  

Quarter of year (1, 2, 3, 4; JAN-MAR = 1)  

RM
 

Yes  

Roman numeral month (I-XII; JAN = I).  

RR
 

Yes  

Given a year with 2 digits, returns a year in the next century if the year is <50 and the last 2 digits of the current year are >=50; returns a year in the preceding century if the year is >=50 and the last 2 digits of the current year are <50.  

RRRR
 

Yes  

Round year. Accepts either 4-digit or 2-digit input. If 2-digit, provides the same return as RR. If you don't want this functionality, simply enter the 4-digit year.  

SS
 

Yes  

Second (0-59).  

SSSSS
 

Yes  

Seconds past midnight (0-86399).  

WW
 

No  

Week of year (1-53) where week 1 starts on the first day of the year and continues to the seventh day of the year.  

W
 

No  

Week of month (1-5) where week 1 starts on the first day of the month and ends on the seventh.  

Y,YYY
 

Yes  

Year with comma in this position.  

YEAR
SYEAR
 

No  

Year, spelled out; "S" prefixes BC dates with "-".  

YYYY
SYYYY
 

Yes  

4-digit year; "S" prefixes BC dates with "-".  

YYY
YY
Y
 

Yes  

Last 3, 2, or 1 digit(s) of year.  

Oracle returns an error if an alphanumeric character is found in the date string where punctuation character is found in the format string. For example:

TO_CHAR (TO_DATE('0297','MM/YY'), 'MM/YY')

returns an error.

Date Format Elements and National Language Support

The functionality of some date format elements depends on the country and language in which you are using Oracle. For example, these date format elements return spelled values:

The language in which these values are returned is specified either explicitly with the initialization parameter NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE or implicitly with the initialization parameter NLS_LANGUAGE. The values returned by the YEAR and SYEAR date format elements are always in English.

The date format element D returns the number of the day of the week (1-7). The day of the week that is numbered 1 is specified implicitly by the initialization parameter NLS_TERRITORY.

For information on these initialization parameters, see Oracle8 Reference.

ISO Standard Date Format Elements

Oracle calculates the values returned by the date format elements IYYY, IYY, IY, I, and IW according to the ISO standard. For information on the differences between these values and those returned by the date format elements YYYY, YYY, YY, Y, and WW, see the discussion of national language support in Oracle8 Reference.

The RR Date Format Element

The RR date format element is similar to the YY date format element, but it provides additional flexibility for storing date values in other centuries. The RR date format element allows you to store 21st century dates in the 20th century by specifying only the last two digits of the year. It will also allow you to store 20th century dates in the 21st century in the same way if necessary.

If you use the TO_DATE function with the YY date format element, the date value returned is always in the current century. If you use the RR date format element instead, the century of the return value varies according to the specified two-digit year and the last two digits of the current year. Table 3-16 summarizes the behavior of the RR date format element.

Table 3-16 The RR Date Element Format
 

If the specified two-digit year is  

 

0 - 49  

50 - 99  

If the last two digits of the current year are:  

0-49  

The return date is in the current century.  

The return date is in the preceding century.  

50-99  

The return date is in the next century.  

The return date is in the current century.  

The following example demonstrates the behavior of the RR date format element.

Example 1

Assume these queries are issued between 1950 and 1999:

SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('27-OCT-95', 'DD-MON-RR') ,'YYYY') "Year"
     FROM DUAL;

Year
----
1995

SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('27-OCT-17', 'DD-MON-RR') ,'YYYY') "Year";
     FROM DUAL; 

Year
----
2017
Example 2

Assume these queries are issued between 2000 and 2049:

SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('27-OCT-95', 'DD-MON-RR') ,'YYYY') "Year";
  FROM DUAL; 

Year
----
1995 

SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('27-OCT-17', 'DD-MON-RR') ,'YYYY') "Year";
     FROM DUAL; 

Year
----
2017

Note that the queries return the same values regardless of whether they are issued before or after the year 2000. The RR date format element allows you to write SQL statements that will return the same values after the turn of the century.

Date Format Element Suffixes

Table 3-17 lists suffixes that can be added to date format elements:

Table 3-17 Date Format Element Suffixes
Suffix   Meaning   Example Element   Example Value  

TH  

Ordinal Number  

DDTH  

4TH  

SP  

Spelled Number  

DDSP  

FOUR  

SPTH or THSP  

Spelled, ordinal number  

DDSPTH  

FOURTH  

When you add one of these suffixes to a date format element, the return value is always in English.


Note:

Date suffixes are valid only on output and cannot be used to insert a date into the database.

 

Capitalization of Date Format Elements

Capitalization in a spelled-out word, abbreviation, or Roman numeral follows capitalization in the corresponding format element. For example, the date format model 'DAY' produces capitalized words like 'MONDAY'; 'Day' produces 'Monday'; and 'day' produces 'monday'.

Punctuation and Character Literals in Date Format Models

You can also include these characters in a date format model:

These characters appear in the return value in the same location as they appear in the format model.

Format Model Modifiers

You can use the FM and FX modifiers in format models for the TO_CHAR function to control blank padding and exact format checking.

A modifier can appear in a format model more than once. In such a case, each subsequent occurrence toggles the effects of the modifier. Its effects are enabled for the portion of the model following its first occurrence, and then disabled for the portion following its second, and then reenabled for the portion following its third, and so on.

FM

"Fill mode". This modifier suppresses blank padding in the return value of the TO_CHAR function:

FX

"Format exact". This modifier specifies exact matching for the character argument and date format model of a TO_DATE function:

If any portion of the character argument violates any of these conditions, Oracle returns an error message.

Example 1

The following statement uses a date format model to return a character expression:

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'fmDDTH')||' of '||TO_CHAR
   (SYSDATE, 'Month')||', '||TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'YYYY') "Ides" 
    FROM DUAL; 

Ides 
------------------ 
3RD of April, 1995

Note that the statement above also uses the FM modifier. If FM is omitted, the month is blank-padded to nine characters:

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'DDTH')||' of '||
   TO_CHAR(Month, YYYY') "Ides"
   FROM DUAL; 

Ides 
----------------------- 
03RD of April    , 1995 
Example 2

The following statement places a single quotation mark in the return value by using a date format model that includes two consecutive single quotation marks:

SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'fmDay')||'''s Special') "Menu"
     FROM DUAL; 

Menu 
----------------- 
Tuesday's Special 

Two consecutive single quotation marks can be used for the same purpose within a character literal in a format model.

Example 3

Table 3-18 shows whether the following statement meets the matching conditions for different values of char and 'fmt' using FX:

UPDATE table 
  SET date_column = TO_DATE(char, 'fmt');



Table 3-18 Matching Character Data and Format Models with the FX Format Model Modifier
char   'fmt'   Match or Error?  
'15/ JAN /1993'
 
'DD-MON-YYYY'
 

Match  

' 15! JAN % /1993'
 
'DD-MON-YYYY'
 

Error  

'15/JAN/1993'
 
'FXDD-MON-YYYY'
 

Error  

'15-JAN-1993'
 
'FXDD-MON-YYYY'
 

Match  

'1-JAN-1993'
 
'FXDD-MON-YYYY'
 

Error  

'01-JAN-1993'
 
'FXDD-MON-YYYY'
 

Match  

'1-JAN-1993'
 
'FXFMDD-MON-YYYY'
 

Match  

String-to-Date Conversion Rules

The following additional formatting rules apply when converting string values to date values:

Expressions

An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators, and SQL functions that evaluate to a value. An expression generally assumes the datatype of its components.

This simple expression evaluates to 4 and has datatype NUMBER (the same datatype as its components):

2*2 

The following expression is an example of a more complex expression that uses both functions and operators. The expression adds seven days to the current date, removes the time component from the sum, and converts the result to CHAR datatype:

TO_CHAR(TRUNC(SYSDATE+7)) 

You can use expressions in

For example, you could use an expression in place of the quoted string 'smith' in this UPDATE statement SET clause:

SET ename = 'smith'; 

This SET clause has the expression LOWER(ename) instead of the quoted string 'smith':

SET ename = LOWER(ename);

Expressions have several forms. Oracle does not accept all forms of expressions in all parts of all SQL commands. You must use appropriate expression notation whenever expr appears in conditions, SQL functions, or SQL commands in other parts of this reference. The description of each command in Chapter 4, "Commands", documents the restrictions on the expressions in the command. The sections that follow describe and provide examples of the various forms of expressions.

Form I

A Form I expression specifies column, pseudocolumn, constant, sequence number, or NULL.


In addition to the schema of a user, schema can also be "PUBLIC" (double quotation marks required), in which case it must qualify a public synonym for a table, view, or snapshot. Qualifying a public synonym with "PUBLIC" is supported only in data manipulation language (DML) commands, not data definition language (DDL) commands.

The pseudocolumn can be either LEVEL, ROWID, or ROWNUM. You can use a pseudocolumn only with a table, not with a view or snapshot. NCHAR and NVARCHAR2 are not valid pseudocolumn or ROWLABEL datatypes. For more information on pseudocolumns, see "Pseudocolumns".

If you are not using Trusted Oracle, the expression ROWLABEL always returns NULL. For information on using labels and ROWLABEL, see your Trusted Oracle documentation.

Some valid Form I expressions are:

emp.ename 
'this is a text string'
10 
N'this is an NCHAR string'

Form II

A Form II expression specifies a host variable with an optional indicator variable. Note that this form of expression can only appear in embedded SQL statements or SQL statements processed in an Oracle Call Interface (OCI) program.

Some valid Form II expressions are:

:employee_name INDICATOR :employee_name_indicator_var
:department_location 

Form III

A Form III expression specifies a call to a SQL function operating on a single row.

Some valid Form III expressions are:

LENGTH('BLAKE') 
ROUND(1234.567*43) 
SYSDATE 

For information on SQL functions, see "SQL Functions".

Form IV

A Form IV expression specifies a call to a user function

Some valid Form IV expressions are:

circle_area(radius)
payroll.tax_rate(empno)
scott.payrol.tax_rate(dependents, empno)@ny

For information on user functions, see "User Functions".

Form V

A Form V expression specifies a combination of other expressions.

Note that some combinations of functions are inappropriate and are rejected. For example, the LENGTH function is inappropriate within a group function.

Some valid Form V expressions are:

('CLARK' || 'SMITH') 
LENGTH('MOOSE') * 57 
SQRT(144) + 72 
my_fun(TO_CHAR(sysdate,'DD-MMM-YY')

Form VI

A Form VI expression specifies a call to a type constructor.

If type_name is an object type, then the type argument list must be an ordered list of arguments, where the first argument is a value whose type matches the first attribute of the object type, the second argument is a value whose type matches the second attribute of the object type, and so on. The total number of arguments to the constructor must match the total number of attributes of the object type; the maximum number of arguments is 999.

If type_name is a VARRAY or nested table type, then the argument list can contain zero or more arguments. Zero arguments imply construction of an empty collection. Otherwise, each argument corresponds to an element value whose type is the element type of the collection type.

Whether type_name is an object type, a VARRAY, or a nested table type, the maximum number of arguments it can contain is 999.

Example

CREATE TYPE address_t AS OBJECT 
  (no NUMBER, street CHAR(31), city CHAR(21), state CHAR(3), zip NUMBER); 
CREATE TYPE address_book_t AS TABLE OF address_t;
DECLARE 
  /* Object Type variable initialized via Object Type Constructor */ 
  myaddr address_t = address_t(500, 'Oracle Parkway', 'Redwood Shores',
                                'CA', 94065);   
  /* nested table variable initialized to an empty table via a 
     constructor*/ 
  alladdr address_book_t = address_book_t(); 
BEGIN
  /* below is an example of a nested table constructor with two elements
     specified, where each element is specified as an object type
     constructor. */ 
  insert into employee values (666999, address_book_t(address_t(500,
     'Oracle  Parkway', 'Redwood Shores', 'CA', 94065), address_t(400,
     'Mission Street', 'Fremont', 'CA', 94555))); 
END; 

Form VII

A Form VII expression converts one collection-typed value into another collection-typed value.


CAST allows you to convert collection-typed values of one type into another collection type. You can cast an unnamed collection (such as the result set of a subquery) or a named collection (such as a VARRAY or a nested table) into a type-compatible named collection. The type_name must be the name of a collection type and the operand must evaluate to a collection value.

To cast a named collection type into another named collection type, the elements of both collections must be of the same type.

If the result set of subquery can evaluate to multiple rows, you must specify the MULTISET keyword. The rows resulting from the subquery form the elements of the collection value into which they are cast. Without the MULTISET keyword, the subquery is treated as a scalar subquery, which is not supported in the CAST expression. In other words, scalar subqueries as arguments of the CAST operator are not valid in Oracle8.

The CAST examples that follow use the following user-defined types and tables:

CREATE TYPE address_t AS OBJECT 
      (no NUMBER, street CHAR(31), city CHAR(21), state CHAR(2)); 
CREATE TYPE address_book_t AS TABLE OF address_t; 
CREATE TYPE address_array_t AS VARRAY(3) OF address_t; 
CREATE TABLE emp_address (empno NUMBER, no NUMBER, street CHAR(31), 
                             city  CHAR(21), state CHAR(2)); 
CREATE TABLE employees (empno NUMBER, name CHAR(31)); 
CREATE TABLE dept (dno NUMBER, addresses address_array_t); 
Example 1

CAST a subquery:

SELECT e.empno, e.name, CAST(MULTISET(SELECT ea.no, ea.street,
                                               ea.city, ea.state 
                                        FROM emp_address ea
                                        WHERE ea.empno = e.empno)
                        AS address_book_t)
  FROM employees e; 
Example 2

CAST converts a VARRAY type column into a nested table. The table values are generated by a flattened subquery. See "Using Flattened Subqueries".

SELECT * 
    FROM THE(SELECT CAST(d.addresses AS address_book_t)
                FROM dept d 
                  WHERE d.dno = 111) a 
     WHERE a.city = 'Redwood Shores'; 
Example 3

The following example casts a MULTISET expression with an ORDER BY clause:

CREATE TABLE projects (empid NUMBER, projname VARCHAR2(10));
CREATE TABLE employees (empid NUMBER, ename VARCHAR2(10));
CREATE TYPE projname_table_type AS TABLE OF VARCHAR2(10);

An example of a MULTISET expression with the above schema is:

SELECT e.name, CAST(MULTISET(SELECT p.projname
                             FROM projects p
                             WHERE p.empid=e.empid 
                             ORDER BY p.projname) 
  AS projname_table_type)
   FROM employees e;

Form VIII

A Form VIII expression returns a nested CURSOR. This form of expression is similar to the PL/SQL REF cursor.

A nested cursor is implicitly opened when the containing row is fetched from the parent cursor. The nested cursor is closed only when

The following restrictions apply to the CURSOR expression:

Example

SELECT d.deptno, CURSOR(SELECT e.empno, CURSOR(SELECT p.projnum,
                                                      p.projname
                                         FROM   projects p 
                                         WHERE  p.empno = e.empno)
                        FROM TABLE(d.employees) e)
  FROM dept d
  WHERE d.dno = 605; 

Form IX

A Form IX expression constructs a reference to an object.

In a SQL statement, REF takes as its argument a table alias associated with a row of an object table or an object view. A REF value is returned for the object instance that is bound to the variable or row. For more information about REFs, see Oracle8 Concepts.

Example 1

SELECT REF(e)
FROM employee_t e
WHERE e.empno = 10000;

Example 2

This example uses REF in a predicate:

SELECT e.name 
FROM employee_t
  e INTO :x
WHERE REF(e) = empref1;

Form X

A Form X expression returns the row object.

In a SQL statement, VALUE takes as its argument a correlation variable (table alias) associated with a row of an object table.

Example

SELECT VALUE(e)
  FROM employee e
  WHERE e.name = 'John Smith';

Form XI

A Form XI expression specifies attribute reference and method invocation.

expr_form_XI::=

The column parameter can be an object or REF column. Examples in this section use the following user-defined types and tables:

CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE employee_t AS OBJECT 
    (empid NUMBER,
     name CHAR(31),
     birthdate DATE,
     MEMBER FUNCTION age RETURN NUMBER,
     PRAGMA RESTRICT REFERENCES(age, RNPS, WNPS, WNDS)
    );
CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE BODY employee_t AS
 MEMBER FUNCTION age RETURN NUMBER IS
   var NUMBER;
   BEGIN
     var := months_between(ROUND(SYSDATE, 'YEAR'), 
            ROUND(birthdate, 'YEAR'))/12;
     RETURN(var);
   END;
 END; /
CREATE TABLE department (dno NUMBER, manager EMPLOYEE_T);
Examples

The following examples update and select from the object columns and method defined above.

UPDATE department d
  SET d.manager.empid = 100;

SELECT d.manager.name, d.manager.age()
  FROM department d;

Decoded Expression

A decoded expression uses the special DECODE syntax:

To evaluate this expression, Oracle compares expr to each search value one by one. If expr is equal to a search, Oracle returns the corresponding result. If no match is found, Oracle returns default, or, if default is omitted, returns null. If expr and search contain character data, Oracle compares them using nonpadded comparison semantics. For information on these semantics, see the section"Datatype Comparison Rules".

The search, result, and default values can be derived from expressions. Oracle evaluates each search value only before comparing it to expr, rather than evaluating all search values before comparing any of them with expr. Consequently, Oracle never evaluates a search if a previous search is equal to expr.

Oracle automatically converts expr and each search value to the datatype of the first search value before comparing. Oracle automatically converts the return value to the same datatype as the first result. If the first result has the datatype CHAR or if the first result is null, then Oracle converts the return value to the datatype VARCHAR2. For information on datatype conversion, see "Data Conversion".

In a DECODE expression, Oracle considers two nulls to be equivalent. If expr is null, Oracle returns the result of the first search that is also null.

The maximum number of components in the DECODE expression, including expr, searches, results, and default is 255.

Example

This expression decodes the value DEPTNO. If DEPTNO is 10, the expression evaluates to 'ACCOUNTING'; if DEPTNO is 20, it evaluates to 'RESEARCH'; etc. If DEPTNO is not 10, 20, 30, or 40, the expression returns 'NONE'.

DECODE (deptno,10, 'ACCOUNTING', 
               20, 'RESEARCH', 
               30, 'SALES', 
               40, 'OPERATION',                     
                    'NONE') 

List of Expressions

A list of expressions is a parenthesized series of expressions separated by a comma.

An expression list can contain up to 1000 expressions. Some valid expression lists are:

10, 20, 40) 
('SCOTT', 'BLAKE', 'TAYLOR')
(LENGTH('MOOSE') * 57, -SQRT(144) + 72, 69) 

Conditions

A condition specifies a combination of one or more expressions and logical operators that evaluates to either TRUE, FALSE, or unknown. You must use this syntax whenever condition appears in SQL commands in Chapter 4, "Commands".

You can use a condition in the WHERE clause of these statements:

You can use a condition in any of these clauses of the SELECT command:

A condition could be said to be of the "logical" datatype, although Oracle does not formally support such a datatype.

The following simple condition always evaluates to TRUE:

1 = 1 

The following more complex condition adds the SAL value to the COMM value (substituting the value 0 for null) and determines whether the sum is greater than the number constant 2500:

NVL(sal, 0) + NVL(comm, 0) > 2500 

Logical operators can combine multiple conditions into a single condition. For example, you can use the AND operator to combine two conditions:

(1 = 1) AND (5 < 7) 

Here are some valid conditions:

name = 'SMITH' 
emp.deptno = dept.deptno 
hiredate > '01-JAN-88' 
job IN ('PRESIDENT', 'CLERK', 'ANALYST') 
sal BETWEEN 500 AND 1000 
comm IS NULL AND sal = 2000 

Conditions can have several forms. The description of each command in Chapter 4, "Commands", documents the restrictions on the conditions in the command. The sections that follow describe the various forms of conditions.

Form I

A Form I condition specifies a comparison with expressions or subquery results.

For information on comparison operators, see "Comparison Operators".

Form II

A Form II condition specifies a comparison with any or all members in a list or subquery.
See "Subqueries".

Form III

A Form III condition tests for membership in a list or subquery.

Form IV

A Form IV condition tests for inclusion in a range.

Form V

A Form V condition tests for nulls.

Form VI

A Form VI condition tests for existence of rows in a subquery.

Form VII

A Form VII condition specifies a test involving pattern matching.

Form VIII

A Form VIII condition specifies a combination of other conditions.




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