12
Establishing Security Policies

This chapter discusses and provides guidance on developing security policies.

Note: If you are using Trusted Oracle, then see the Trusted Oracle documentation for additional information about establishing an overall system security policy.

This chapter discusses the elements you can incorporate into security policies:

• About Security Policies

• Application Security

• Application Context

• Fine-Grained Access Control

• Using Application Context within a Fine-Grained Access Control Package

• Examples

About Security Policies

There are many types of mechanisms available to maintain the security of an Oracle database. In addition to requirements unique to your environment, you should design and implement a discretionary security policy to determine, for example:

• The level of security at the application level

• System and object privileges

• Database roles

• How to grant and revoke privileges and roles

• How to create, alter, and drop roles

• How to control role use

• Level of granularity of access control

• Which user attributes govern a user's access to the database

This chapter discusses three elements you can use in establishing security policies:

Application Security:	Attach privileges and roles to each application, while making sure that users do not misuse those roles and privileges when they are not actually using the application.
Application Context:	Use this feature to set up session-based attributes securely. For example, you can securely store such user attributes as the user name, her role, the application she is using, the books she is authorized to access, and her position in the management hierarchy. You can then retrieve that information later in the session.
Fine-Grained Access Control:	Use this feature to implement security policies at a low level of granularity. Do this by creating security policy functions attached to the table or view on which you have based your application. Then, when a user enters a DML statement on that object, Oracle modifies that statement dynamically and transparently to the user.

Application Security

Draft a security policy for each database application. For example, each developed database application should have one or more application roles that provide different levels of security when executing the application. The application roles can be granted to user roles or directly to specific usernames.

Applications that potentially allow unrestricted SQL statement execution (such as SQL*Plus) also need security policies that prevent malicious access to confidential or important schema objects.

Application Administrators

In large database systems with many database applications, it may be desirable to have application administrators. An application administrator is responsible for the following:

• Creating roles for an application and managing the privileges of each application role

• Creating and managing the objects used by a database application

• Maintaining and updating the application code and Oracle procedures and packages as necessary

Roles and Application Privilege Management

Because most database applications involve many different privileges on many different schema objects, keeping track of which privileges are required for each application can be complex. In addition, authorizing users to run an application can involve many GRANT operations. To simplify application privilege management, create a role for each application and grant that role all the privileges a user needs to run the application. In fact, an application might have a number of roles, each granted a specific subset of privileges that allow fewer or more capabilities while running the application.

For example, suppose that every administrative assistant uses the Vacation application to record vacation taken by members of the department. You should:

1. Create a VACATION role.

2. Grant all privileges required by the Vacation application to the VACATION role.

3. Grant the VACATION role to all administrative assistants or to a role named ADMIN_ASSISTS (if previously defined).

Grouping application privileges in a role aids privilege management. Consider the following administrative options:

• You can grant the role, rather than many individual privileges, to those users who run the application. Then, as employees change jobs, you need to grant or revoke only one role, rather than many privileges.

• You can change the privileges associated with an application by modifying only the privileges granted to the role, rather than the privileges held by all users of the application.

• You can determine which privileges are necessary to run a particular application by querying the ROLE_TAB_PRIVS and ROLE_SYS_PRIVS data dictionary views.

• You can determine which users have privileges on which applications by querying the DBA_ROLE_PRIVS data dictionary view.

Enabling Application Roles

A single user can use many applications and associated roles. However, you should allow a user to have only the privileges associated with the currently running application role. For example, consider the following scenario:

• The ORDER role (for the ORDER application) contains the UPDATE privilege for the INVENTORY table.

• The INVENTORY role (for the INVENTORY application) contains the SELECT privilege for the INVENTORY table.

• Several order entry clerks have been granted both the ORDER and INVENTORY roles.

In this scenario, an order entry clerk, who has been granted both roles, can presumably use the privileges of the ORDER role when running the INVENTORY application to update the INVENTORY table. The problem is that updating the INVENTORY table is not an authorized action when using the INVENTORY application, but only when using the ORDER application.

To avoid such problems, consider using either the SET ROLE command or the SET ROLE procedure as explained below.

SET ROLE Command

Use a SET ROLE statement at the beginning of each application to automatically enable its associated role and, consequently, disable all others. By using the SET ROLE command, each application dynamically enables particular privileges for a user only when required.

The SET ROLE statement facilitates privilege management because, in addition to letting you control what information a user can access, it allows you to control when a user can access it. In addition, the SET ROLE statement keeps users operating in a well defined privilege domain.

If a user gets all privileges from roles, then the user cannot combine them to perform unauthorized operations.

See Also: "Enabling and Disabling Roles"

SET_ROLE Procedure

The DBMS_SESSIONS.SET_ROLE procedure behaves similarly to the SET ROLE statement and can be accessed from PL/SQL. You cannot call SET_ROLE from a stored procedure. This restriction prevents a stored procedure from changing its security domain during its execution. A stored procedure executes under the security domain of the creator of the procedure.

DBMS_SESSION.SET_ROLE is callable only from the following:

• Anonymous PL/SQL blocks

• Invoker's rights stored procedures (except those invoked from within definer's rights procedures).

Because PL/SQL does the security check on SQL when an anonymous block is compiled, SET_ROLE will not affect the security role (in other words, it will not affect the roles enabled) for embedded SQL statements or procedure calls.

For example, suppose you have a role named ACCT that has been granted privileges allowing you to select from table FINANCE in the JOE schema. In this case, the following block fails:

Note: You may need to set up data structures for certain examples to work, such as: CONNECT system/manager DROP USER joe CASCADE; CREATE USER joe IDENTIFIED BY joe; GRANT CREATE SESSION, RESOURCE, UNLIMITED TABLESPACE TO joe; GRANT CREATE SESSION, RESOURCE, UNLIMITED TABLESPACE TO scott; DROP ROLE acct; CREATE ROLE acct; GRANT acct TO scott; CONNECT joe/joe; CREATE TABLE finance (empno NUMBER); GRANT SELECT ON finance TO acct; CONNECT scott/tiger

DECLARE
    n NUMBER;
BEGIN
    SYS.DBMS_SESSION.SET_ROLE('acct');
    SELECT empno INTO n FROM JOE.FINANCE;
END;

This block fails because the security check that verifies that you have the SELECT privilege on table JOE.FINANCE happens at compile time. At compile time, you do not have the ACCT role enabled yet. The role is not enabled until the block is executed.

The DBMS_SQL package, however, is not subject to this restriction. When you use this package, the security checks are performed at runtime. Thus, a call to SET_ROLE would affect the SQL executed using calls to the DBMS_SQL package. The following block is, therefore, successful:

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE dynSQL_proc IS
   n NUMBER;
BEGIN
   SYS.DBMS_SESSION.SET_ROLE('acct');
   EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'select empno from joe.finance' INTO n;
    --other calls to SYS.DBMS_SQL
END;

Restricting Application Roles from Tool Users

Prebuilt database applications explicitly control the potential actions of a user, including the enabling and disabling of the user's roles while using the application. Alternatively, ad hoc query tools, such as SQL*Plus, allow a user to submit any SQL statement (which may or may not succeed), including the enabling and disabling of any granted role. This can pose a serious security problem: A user of an application could exercise the privileges attached to that application to issue destructive SQL statements against database tables by using an ad hoc tool.

For example, consider the following scenario:

• The Vacation application has a corresponding VACATION role.

• The VACATION role includes the privileges to issue SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements against the EMP_TAB table.

• The Vacation application controls the use of the privileges obtained via the VACATION role (the application controls when statements are issued).

Now, consider a user who has been granted the VACATION role. Suppose, instead of using the Vacation application, the user executes SQL*Plus. At this point, the user is restricted only by the privileges granted to him explicitly or via roles, including the VACATION role. Because SQL*Plus is an ad hoc query tool, the user is not restricted to a set of predefined actions, as with designed database applications. The user can query or modify data in the EMP_TAB table as he or she chooses.

To avoid potential problems like the one above, consider the following possible policies for application roles, each of which is explained more fully below:

• Enable the proper role when the application starts, and disable it when the application terminates

• Encapsulate privileges in stored procedures and grant the user execute privileges rather than raw privileges

• Grant privileges through roles that require a password unknown to the user

• Use application context

Enable the proper role when the application starts, and disable it when the application terminates

• Give each application distinct roles:
  • One role should contain all privileges necessary to use the application successfully. Depending on the situation, there might be several roles that contain more or fewer privileges to provide tighter or less restrictive security while executing the application. Each application role should be protected by a password (or by operating system authentication) to prevent unauthorized use.

  • Another role should contain only non-destructive privileges associated with the application (SELECT privileges for specific tables or views associated with the application). The read-only role allows the application user to generate custom reports using ad hoc tools, such as SQL*Plus. However, this role does not allow the application user to modify table data outside the application itself. A role designed for an ad hoc query tool may or may not be protected by a password (or operating system authentication).

• At startup, each application should use the SET ROLE command to enable one of the application roles associated with that application. If a password is used to authorize the role, then the password must be included in the SET ROLE statement within the application (encrypted by the application, if possible); if the role is authorized by the operating system, then the system administrator must have set up user accounts and applications so that application users get the appropriate operating system privileges when using the application.

• At termination, each application should disable the previously enabled application role.

• Application users should be granted application roles, as required. The administrator can prohibit a user from using application data with ad hoc tools by not granting the non-destructive role to the user.

Using this configuration, each application enables the proper role when the application is started, and disables the role when the application terminates. If an application user decides to use an ad hoc tool, then the user can enable only the non-destructive role intended for that tool.

Additionally, you can

• Specify the roles to enable when a user starts SQL*Plus, using the PRODUCT_USER_PROFILE table. This functionality is similar to that of a precompiler or Oracle Call Interface (OCI) application that issues a SET ROLE statement to enable specific roles upon application startup.

• Disable the use of the SET ROLE command for SQL*Plus users with the PRODUCT_USER_PROFILE table. This allows a SQL*Plus user only the privileges associated with the roles enabled when the user started SQL*Plus.

Other ad hoc query and reporting tools can also make use of the PRODUCT_USER_PROFILE table to restrict the roles and commands that each user can use while running that product.

See Also: See the appropriate tool manual.

Encapsulate privileges in stored procedures and grant the user execute privileges rather than raw privileges

Another way to restrict users from exercising application privileges by way of ad hoc query tools is to encapsulate privileges into stored procedures, rather than issuing direct privilege grants to users. This allows users to exercise privileges only in the context of well-formed business applications. For example, consider authorizing users to update a table only by executing a stored procedure, rather than by updating the table directly. By doing this, you avoid the problem of the user having the SELECT privilege and using it outside the application.

See Also: For an example of encapsulating privileges in stored procedures, see "Example 3: Human Resources Application #2".

Grant privileges through roles that require a password unknown to the user

In this scenario, you enable the roles by a password known only by the creator of the role. Use the application to issue a SET ROLE command. Because the user does not have the password, either embed the password in the application, or use a stored procedure to retrieve the role password from a database table.

Use application context

In this scenario, you establish a security policy by securely setting session-based attributes.

See Also: "Application Context"

Schemas

A schema is a security domain that can contain database objects. The privileges granted to each user or role controls access to these database objects.

Most schemas can be thought of as usernames -- the accounts set up to allow users to connect to a database and access the database's objects. However, unique schemas do not allow connections to the database, but are used to contain a related set of objects. Schemas of this sort are created as normal users, yet not granted the CREATE SESSION system privilege (either explicitly or via a role). However, you must temporarily grant the CREATE SESSION privilege to such schemas, if you want to use the CREATE SCHEMA command to create multiple tables and views in a single transaction.

For example, the schema objects for a specific application might be owned by a schema. Application users can connect to the database using typical database usernames and use the application and the corresponding object, if they have the privileges to do so. However, no user can connect to the database using the schema set up for the application, thereby preventing access to the associated objects via this schema. This security configuration provides another layer of protection for schema objects.

See Also: "Renaming the Schema" in Chapter 3, "Managing Schema Objects"

Managing Privileges and Roles

As part of designing your application, you need to determine the types of users who will be working with the application and the level of access that they must be granted to accomplish their designated tasks. You must categorize these users into role groups, and then determine the privileges that must be granted to each role.

Typically, end users are granted object privileges. An object privilege allows a user to perform a particular action on a specific table, view, sequence, procedure, function, or package. Depending on the type of object, there are different types of object privileges. Table 12-1 summarizes the object privileges available for each type of object.

Table 12-1 Object Privileges

Object Privilege	Table	View	Sequence	Procedure (1)
ALTER	3		3
DELETE	3	3
EXECUTE				3
INDEX	3 (2)
INSERT	3	3
REFERENCES	3 (2)
SELECT	3	3 (3)	3
UPDATE	3	3

• "Procedure ₍₁₎"--stand-alone stored procedures, functions, and public package constructs

• "2"--privilege that cannot be granted to a role

• "3"--can also be granted for snapshots

Table 12-2 lists the SQL statements permitted by the object privileges listed in Table 12-1.

As you implement and test your application, you should create each of these roles, and test the usage scenario for each role to be certain that the users of your application will have proper access to the database. After completing your tests, you should coordinate with the administrator of the application that each user is assigned the proper roles.

Table 12-2 SQL Statements Permitted by Database Object Privileges

Object Privilege	SQL Statements Permitted
ALTER	ALTER object (table or sequence) CREATE TRIGGER ON object (tables only)
DELETE	DELETE FROM object (table or view)
EXECUTE	EXECUTE object (procedure or function) References to public package variables
INDEX	CREATE INDEX ON object (table or view)
INSERT	INSERT INTO object (table or view)
REFERENCES	CREATE or ALTER TABLE statement defining a FOREIGN KEY integrity constraint on object (tables only)
SELECT	SELECT...FROM object (table, view, or snapshot) SQL statements using a sequence

Creating a Role

The use of a role can be protected by an associated password. For example:

CREATE ROLE Clerk IDENTIFIED BY Bicentennial;

If you are granted a role protected by a password, then you can enable or disable the role only by supplying the proper password for the role using a SET ROLE command.

See Also: "Explicitly Enabling Roles"

Alternatively, roles can be created, so that role use is authorized using information from the operating system or from a network authentication service.

See Also: Oracle8i Administrator's GuideFor information about network authentication services, see Oracle Advanced Security Administrator's Guide.

If a role is created without any protection, then any grantee can enable or disable it.

Database applications usually use the role authorization feature to specifically enable an application role, and disable all other roles of a user. This way, the user cannot use privileges (from a role) intended for another application. With ad hoc query tools, such as SQL*Plus or Enterprise Manager, users can explicitly enable only the roles for which they are authorized (in other words, they know the password or are authorized by the operating system).

See Also: "Restricting Application Roles from Tool Users"

When you create a new role, the name that you use must be unique among existing usernames and role names of the database. Roles are not contained in the schema of any user.

Immediately after creation, a role has no privileges associated with it. To associate privileges with a new role, you must grant privileges or other roles to the newly created role.

Privileges Required to Create Roles

To create a role, you must have the CREATE ROLE system privilege.

Enabling and Disabling Roles

Although a user can be granted a role, the role must be enabled before the privileges associated with it become available in the user's current session. Some, all, or none of the user's roles can be enabled or disabled. The following sections discuss when roles should be enabled and disabled, and the different ways that a user can have roles enabled or disabled.

When to Enable Roles

In general, a user's security domain should always permit the user to perform the current task at hand, yet limit the user from having unnecessary privileges for the current job. For example, a user should have all the privileges to work with the database application currently in use, but not have any privileges required for any other database applications. Having too many privileges might allow users to access information through unintended methods.

Privileges granted directly to a user are always available to the user; therefore, directly granted privileges cannot be selectively enabled and disabled, depending on a user's current task. Alternatively, privileges granted to a role can be selectively made available for any user granted the role. The enabling of roles never affects privileges explicitly granted to a user. The following sections explain how a user's roles can be selectively enabled (and disabled).

Default Roles

A default role is one that is automatically enabled for a user when the user creates a session. A user's list of default roles should include those roles that correspond to his or her typical job function.

Each user has a list of zero, or one or more default roles. Any role directly granted to a user can potentially be a default role of the user; an indirectly granted role (a role that is granted to a role) cannot be a default role; only directly granted roles can be default roles of a user.

The number of default roles for a user should not exceed the maximum number of enabled roles that are allowed per user (as specified by the initialization parameter MAX_ENABLED_ROLES); if the number of default roles for a user exceeds this maximum, then errors are returned when the user attempts a connection, and the user's connection is not allowed.

Note: A default role is automatically enabled for a user when the user creates a session. Placing a role in a user's list of default roles bypasses authentication for the role, whether it is authorized using a password or the operating system.

A user's list of default roles can be set and altered using the SQL command ALTER USER. If the user's list of default roles is specified as ALL, then every role granted to a user is automatically added to the user's list of default roles. Only subsequent modification of a user's default role list can remove newly granted roles from a user's list of default roles.

Modifications to a user's default role list only apply to sessions created after the alteration or role grant; neither method applies to a session in progress at the time of the user alteration or role grant.

Explicitly Enabling Roles

A user (or application) can explicitly enable a role using the SQL command SET ROLE. A SET ROLE statement enables all specified roles, provided that they have been granted to the user. All roles granted to the user that are not explicitly specified in a SET ROLE statement are disabled, including any roles previously enabled.

When you enable a role that contains other roles, all the indirectly granted roles are specifically enabled. Each indirectly granted role can be explicitly enabled or disabled for a user.

If a role is protected by a password, then the role can only be enabled by indicating the role's password in the SET ROLE statement. If the role is not protected by a password, then the role can be enabled with a simple SET ROLE statement. For example, assume that Morris' security domain is as follows:

• He is granted three roles:
  • PAYROLL_CLERK (password BICENTENNIAL)

  • ACCTS_PAY (password GARFIELD)

  • ACCTS_REC (identified externally).

  The PAYROLL_CLERK role includes the indirectly granted role PAYROLL_REPORT (identified externally).

• His only default role is PAYROLL_CLERK.

Morris' currently enabled roles can be changed from his default role, PAYROLL_CLERK, to ACCTS_PAY and ACCTS_REC, by the following statements:

Note: You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work, such as: GRANT PAYROLL_CLERK TO hr; GRANT ACCTS_PAY TO hr; GRANT ACCTS_REC TO hr;

SET ROLE accts_pay IDENTIFIED BY garfield;
SET ROLE accts_pay IDENTIFIED BY accts_rec;
    

            


Notice that in the first statement, multiple roles can be enabled in a single SET ROLE statement. The ALL and ALL EXCEPT options of the SET ROLE command also allow several roles granted directly to the user to be enabled in one statement:

   









Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work, such as:    
CREATE ROLE Payroll_clerk;
CREATE ROLE Payroll_report;
      












     
SET ROLE ALL EXCEPT Payroll_clerk;
    

            


This statement shows the use of the ALL EXCEPT option of the SET ROLE command. Use this option when you want to enable most of a user's roles and only disable one or more. Similarly, all of Morris' roles can be enabled by the following statement:

     
SET ROLE ALL;
    

         



When using the ALL or ALL EXCEPT options of the SET ROLE command, all roles to be enabled either must not require a password, or must be authenticated using the operating system. If a role requires a password, then the SET ROLE ALL or ALL EXCEPT statement is rolled back and an error is returned.




A user can also explicitly enable any indirectly granted roles granted to him or her via an explicit grant of another role. For example, Morris can issue the following statement:

     
SET ROLE Payroll_report;

     


 Privileges Required to Explicitly Enable Roles 




Any user can use the SET ROLE command to enable any granted roles, provided the grantee supplies role passwords, when necessary.




 Enabling and Disabling Roles When OS_ROLES=TRUE 




If OS_ROLES is set to TRUE, then any role granted by the operating system can be dynamically enabled using the SET ROLE command. However, any role not identified in a user's operating system account cannot be specified in a SET ROLE statement (it is ignored), even if a role has been granted using a GRANT statement.




When OS_ROLES is set to TRUE, a user can enable as many roles as specified by the initialization parameter MAX_ENABLED_ROLES. 

   





See Also:



For more information about use of the operating system for role authorization, see Oracle8i Administrator's Guide.  












   


 Dropping Roles 




When you drop a role, the security domains of all users and roles granted that role are immediately changed to reflect the absence of the dropped role's privileges. All indirectly granted roles of the dropped role are also removed from affected security domains. Dropping a role automatically removes the role from all users' default role lists.




Because the creation of objects is not dependent upon the privileges received via a role, no cascading effects regarding objects need to be considered when dropping a role (for example, tables or other objects are not dropped when a role is dropped).




Drop a role using the SQL command DROP ROLE. For example:

     
DROP ROLE clerk;

     


 Privileges Required to Drop Roles




To drop a role, you must have the DROP ANY ROLE system privilege or have been granted the role with the ADMIN OPTION. 




 Granting and Revoking Privileges and Roles




The following sections explain how to grant and revoke system privileges, roles, and schema object privileges. 




 Granting System Privileges and Roles 




System privileges and roles can be granted to other roles or users using the SQL command GRANT, as shown in the following example:

   






Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work, such as:    
CONNECT sys/change_on_install AS sysdba;
CREATE USER jward IDENTIFIED BY jward;
CREATE USER tsmith IDENTIFIED BY tsmith;
CREATE USER finance IDENTIFIED BY finance;
CREATE USER michael IDENTIFIED BY michael;
CREATE ROLE Payroll_report;
GRANT CREATE TABLE, Accts_rec TO finance IDENTIFIED BY finance;
GRANT CREATE TABLE, Accts_rec TO tsmith IDENTIFIED BY tsmith;
GRANT REFERENCES ON Dept_tab TO jward;
CONNECT scott/tiger
CREATE VIEW Salary AS SELECT Empno,Sal from Emp_tab;
      









     
GRANT CREATE SESSION, Accts_pay TO jward, finance;


        


Schema object privileges cannot be granted along with system privileges and roles in the same GRANT statement.




The ADMIN OPTION--A system privilege or role can be granted with the ADMIN OPTION. (This option is not valid when granting a role to another role.) A grantee with this option has several expanded capabilities:




The grantee can grant or revoke the system privilege or role to or from any user or other role in the database. (A user cannot revoke a role from himself.)


The grantee can further grant the system privilege or role with the ADMIN OPTION.


The grantee of a role can alter or drop the role.





A grantee without the ADMIN OPTION cannot perform the above operations.




When a user creates a role, the role is automatically granted to the creator with the ADMIN OPTION.




Assume that you grant the NEW_DBA role to MICHAEL with the following statement:

     
GRANT New_dba TO michael WITH ADMIN OPTION;


     


The user MICHAEL cannot only use all of the privileges implicit in the NEW_DBA role, but can grant, revoke, or drop the NEW_DBA role, as necessary.




Privileges Required to Grant System Privileges or Roles--To grant a system privilege or role, the grantor requires the ADMIN OPTION for all system privileges and roles being granted. Additionally, any user with the GRANT ANY ROLE system privilege can grant any role in a database.




 Granting Schema Object Privileges




Grant schema object privileges to roles or users using the SQL command GRANT. The following statement grants the SELECT, INSERT, and DELETE object privileges for all columns of the EMP_TAB table to the users JWARD and TSMITH:   

     
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, DELETE ON Emp_tab TO jward, tsmith;


     


To grant the INSERT object privilege for only the ENAME and JOB columns of the EMP_TAB table to the users JWARD and TSMITH, enter the following statement:

     
GRANT INSERT(Ename, Job) ON Emp_tab TO jward, tsmith;

     


To grant all schema object privileges on the SALARY view to the user WALLEN, use the ALL short cut. For example:

     
GRANT ALL ON Salary TO wallen;


     


System privileges and roles cannot be granted along with schema object privileges in the same GRANT statement.




The GRANT OPTION--A schema object privilege can be granted to a user with the GRANT OPTION. This special privilege allows the grantee several expanded privileges:




The grantee can grant the schema object privilege to any user or any role in the database.


The grantee can also grant the schema object privilege to other users, with or without the GRANT OPTION.


If the grantee receives schema object privileges for a table with the GRANT OPTION, and the grantee has the CREATE VIEW or the CREATE ANY VIEW system privilege, then the grantee can create views on the table and grant the corresponding privileges on the view to any user or role in the database.





The user whose schema contains an object is automatically granted all associated schema object privileges with the GRANT OPTION.

   
 





Note:



The GRANT OPTION is not valid when granting a schema object privilege to a role. Oracle prevents the propagation of schema object privileges via roles, so that grantees of a role cannot propagate object privileges received via roles.  









   


Privileges Required to Grant Schema Object Privileges--To grant a schema object privilege, the grantor must either




Be the owner of the schema object being specified, or


Have been granted the schema object privileges being granted with the GRANT OPTION





 Revoking System Privileges and Roles 




System privileges and roles can be revoked using the SQL command REVOKE. For example:

     
REVOKE CREATE TABLE, Accts_rec FROM tsmith, finance;


     


The ADMIN OPTION for a system privilege or role cannot be selectively revoked; the privilege or role must be revoked, and then the privilege or role is regranted without the ADMIN OPTION.




Privileges Required to Revoke System Privileges and Roles--Any user with the ADMIN OPTION for a system privilege or role can revoke the privilege or role from any other database user or role (the user does not have to be the user that originally granted the privilege or role). Additionally, any user with the GRANT ANY ROLE can revoke any role.




 Revoking Schema Object Privileges 




Schema object privileges can be revoked using the SQL command REVOKE. For example, assuming you are the original grantor, to revoke the SELECT and INSERT privileges on the EMP_TAB table from the users JWARD and TSMITH, enter the following statement:

     
REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON Emp_tab FROM jward, tsmith;


     


A grantor could also revoke all privileges on the table DEPT_TAB (even if only one  privilege was granted) that he or she granted to the role HUMAN_RESOURCES by entering the following statement:

     
REVOKE ALL ON Dept_tab FROM human_resources;


     


This statement would only revoke the privileges that the grantor authorized, not the grants made by other users. The GRANT OPTION for a schema object privilege cannot be selectively revoked; the schema object privilege must be revoked and then regranted without the GRANT OPTION. A user cannot revoke schema object privileges from him or herself.




Revoking Column-Selective Schema Object Privileges--Recall that column-specific INSERT, UPDATE, and REFERENCES privileges can be granted for tables or views; however, it is not possible to revoke column-specific privileges selectively with a similar REVOKE statement. Instead, the grantor must first revoke the schema object privilege for all columns of a table or view, and then selectively grant the new column-specific privileges again.




For example, assume the role HUMAN_RESOURCES has been granted the UPDATE privilege on the DEPTNO and DNAME columns of the table DEPT_TAB. To revoke the UPDATE privilege on just the DEPTNO column, enter the following two statements:

     
REVOKE UPDATE ON Dept_tab FROM human_resources;
GRANT UPDATE (Dname) ON Dept_tab TO human_resources;


     


The REVOKE statement revokes the UPDATE privilege on all columns of the DEPT_TAB table from the role HUMAN_RESOURCES. The GRANT statement regrants the UPDATE privilege on the DNAME column to the role HUMAN_RESOURCES.




Revoking the REFERENCES Schema Object Privilege--If the grantee of the REFERENCES object privilege has used the privilege to create a foreign key constraint (that currently exists), then the grantor can only revoke the privilege by specifying the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option in the REVOKE statement:

     
REVOKE REFERENCES ON Dept_tab FROM jward CASCADE CONSTRAINTS;


     


Any foreign key constraints currently defined that use the revoked REFERENCES privilege are dropped when the CASCADE CONSTRAINTS option is specified.




Privileges Required to Revoke Schema Object Privileges--To revoke a schema object privilege, the revoker must be the original grantor of the object privilege being revoked.




 Cascading Effects of Revoking Privileges 




Depending on the type of privilege, there may or may not be cascading effects if a privilege is revoked. The following sections explain several cascading effects.




System Privileges--There are no cascading effects when revoking a system privilege related to DDL operations, regardless of whether the privilege was granted with or without the ADMIN OPTION. For example, assume the following:




You grant the CREATE TABLE system privilege to JWARD with the WITH ADMIN OPTION.


JWARD creates a table.


JWARD grants the CREATE TABLE system privilege to TSMITH.


TSMITH creates a table.


You revoke the CREATE TABLE privilege from JWARD.


JWARD's table continues to exist. TSMITH continues to have the CREATE TABLE system privilege, and his table still exists.





Cascading effects can be observed when revoking a system privilege related to a DML operation. For example, if SELECT ANY TABLE is granted to a user, and if that user has created any procedures, then all procedures contained in the user's schema must be reauthorized before they can be used again (after the revoke).




Schema Object Privileges--Revoking a schema object privilege can have several types of cascading effects that should be investigated before a REVOKE statement is issued:




Schema object definitions that depend on a DML object privilege can be affected if the DML object privilege is revoked. For example, assume the procedure body of the TEST procedure includes a SQL statement that queries data from the EMP_TAB table. If the SELECT privilege on the EMP_TAB table is revoked from the owner of the TEST procedure, then the procedure can no longer be executed successfully.


Schema object definitions that require the ALTER and INDEX DDL object privileges are not affected, if the ALTER or INDEX object privilege is revoked. For example, if the INDEX privilege is revoked from a user that created an index on someone else's table, then the index continues to exist after the privilege is revoked.


When a REFERENCES privilege for a table is revoked from a user, any foreign key integrity constraints defined by the user that require the dropped REFERENCES privilege are automatically dropped. For example, assume that the user JWARD is granted the REFERENCES privilege for the DEPTNO column of the DEPT_TAB table and creates a foreign key on the DEPTNO column in the EMP_TAB table that references the DEPTNO column. If the REFERENCES privilege on the DEPTNO column of the DEPT_TAB table is revoked, then the foreign key constraint on the DEPTNO column of the EMP_TAB table is dropped in the same operation.


The schema object privilege grants propagated using the GRANT OPTION are revoked, if a grantor's object privilege is revoked. For example, assume that USER1 is granted the SELECT object privilege with the GRANT OPTION, and grants the SELECT privilege on EMP_TAB to USER2. Subsequently, the SELECT privilege is revoked from USER1. This revoke is cascaded to USER2 as well. Any schema objects that depended on USER1's and USER2's revoked SELECT privilege can also be affected. 





 Granting to, and Revoking from, the User Group PUBLIC 




Privileges and roles can also be granted to and revoked from the user group PUBLIC. Because PUBLIC is accessible to every database user, all privileges and roles granted to PUBLIC are accessible to every database user.




You should only grant a privilege or role to PUBLIC if every database user requires the privilege or role. This recommendation restates the general rule that at any given time, each database user should only have the privileges required to successfully accomplish the current task.




Revokes from PUBLIC can cause significant cascading effects, depending on the privilege that is revoked. If any privilege related to a DML operation is revoked from PUBLIC (for example, SELECT ANY TABLE, UPDATE ON EMP_TAB), then all procedures in the database (including functions and packages) must be reauthorized before they can be used again. Therefore, use caution when granting DML-related privileges to PUBLIC. 




 When Do Grants and Revokes Take Effect? 




Depending upon what is granted or revoked, a grant or revoke takes effect at different times:




All grants/revokes of privileges (system and schema object) to users, roles, or PUBLIC are immediately observed.


All grants/revokes of roles to users, other roles, or PUBLIC are observed only when a current user session issues a SET ROLE statement to re-enable the role after the grant/revoke, or when a new user session is created after the grant/revoke.





 How Do Grants Affect Dependent Objects?




Issuing a GRANT statement against a schema object causes the "last DDL time" attribute of the object to change. This can invalidate any dependent schema objects, in particular PL/SQL package bodies that refer to the schema object. These then must be recompiled.




 Application Context




Application context allows you to write applications on certain aspects of a user's session information. This is especially useful in developing secure applications based on a user's access privileges. For example, suppose a user is running the Oracle Human Resource application. Part of the application's initialization process is to determine the kind of responsibility that the user may assume based on the user's identity. This responsibility ID becomes part of the Oracle Human Resource application context; it will affect what data the user can access throughout the session.




 Features of Application Context




Application context provides security tailored to the attributes you specify for each application. It also provides security through validation.



Security Tailored to the Attributes You Specify for Each Application



Each application can have its own context with its own attributes. For example, suppose you have three applications: General Ledger, Order Entry, and Human Resources. You can specify different attributes for each application. Thus, 




For the General Ledger application context, you can specify the attributes BOOK and TITLE


For the Order Entry application context, you can specify the attribute CUSTOMER_NUMBER




and


For the Human Resources application context, you can specify the attributes ORGANIZATION_ID, POSITION, and COUNTRY.





In each case, you can adapt the application context to your precise security needs. 



Security through Validation 



Suppose you have a General Ledger application, which has access control based on sets of books. If a user accessing this application changes the set of books he is working on from 01 to 02, the application context can ensure that: 




02 is a valid set of books


The user has privileges to access set of books 02





The validation function can check application metadata tables to make this determination and ensure that the attributes in combination are in line with the overall security policy. To restrict a user from changing a context attribute without the above security validation, Oracle verifies that only the designated package implementing the context changes the attribute.




 Using Application Context




In very basic terms, when you use application context, you perform the following two tasks, each of which is described below.




Create a PL/SQL package with functions that set the context for your application


Create a unique context and associate it with the PL/SQL package you created




Create a PL/SQL package with functions that set the context for your application
   





See Also:



See Oracle8i Supplied Packages Reference  









  


The following example creates the package app_security_context.

     
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE App_security_context IS
   PROCEDURE Set_empno;
END;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY App_security_context IS 
   PROCEDURE Set_empno
   IS
   Emp_id NUMBER;
   BEGIN
    SELECT Empno INTO Emp_id FROM Emp_tab 
       WHERE Ename = SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV',
                                 'SESSION_USER');
    DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('app_context', 'empno', Emp_id);
   END;
END;

      

About the SYS_CONTEXT function



The syntax for this function is

     
SYS_CONTEXT ('namespace', 'attribute')


     


and it returns the value of attribute as defined in the package currently associated with the context namespace. It is evaluated once for each statement execution, and is treated like a constant during type checking for optimization. You can use the pre-defined namespace USERENV to access primitive contexts such as userid and NLS parameters.

   





See Also:



See Oracle8i SQL Reference  









   

Create a unique context and associate it with the PL/SQL package you created





To do this, you use the CREATE CONTEXT command. Each context must have a unique attribute and belong to a namespace. Contexts are always owned by the schema SYS. 




For example:

     
CREATE CONTEXT App_context USING APP_SECURITY_CONTEXT;


     


where app_context is the context namespace, and app_security_context is the trusted package that can set attributes in the context namespace.




After you have created the context, you can set or reset the context attributes by using the DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT package. The values of the attributes you set remain either until you reset them or until the user ends the session.




You can set the context attributes inside only the trusted procedure you named in the CREATE CONTEXT command.





 Fine-Grained Access Control




Fine-grained access control allows you to build applications that enforce security policies at a low level of granularity. You can use it, for example, to restrict a customer who is accessing an Oracle server to see only his own account, a physician to see only the records of her own patients, or a manager to see only the records of employees who work for him.




When you use fine-grained access control, you create security policy functions attached to the table or view on which you have based your application. Then, when a user enters a DML statement (SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) on that object, Oracle dynamically modifies that user's statement--transparently to the user--so that the statement implements the correct access control.




 Features of Fine-Grained Access Control




Fine-grained access control provides the following capabilities.



Table- or view-based security policies



Attaching security policies to tables or views, rather than to applications, provides greater security, simplicity, and flexibility.

   






Security  



Attaching a policy to a table or view overcomes a potentially serious application security problem. Suppose a user is authorized to use an application, and then, drawing on the privileges associated with that application, wrongfully modifies the database by using an ad hoc query tool, such as SQL*Plus. By attaching security policies to tables or views, fine-grained access control ensures that the same security is in force, no matter how a user accesses the data.  




Simplicity  



Adding the security policy to the table or view means that you make the addition only once, rather than repeatedly adding it to each of your table- or view-based applications.  




Flexibility  



You can have one security policy for SELECT statements, another for INSERT statements, and still others for UPDATE and DELETE statements. For example, you might want to enable a Human Resources clerk to SELECT all employee records in her division, but to UPDATE only salaries for those employees in her division whose last names begin with "A" through "F."  







   

Multiple policies for each table or view



You can establish several policies for the same table or view. For example, suppose you have a base application for Order Entry, and each division of your company has its own special rules for data access. You can add a division-specific policy function to a table without having to rewrite the policy function of the base application.



High performance



With fine-grained access control, each policy function for a given query is evaluated only once, namely, at statement parse time. Moreover, the entire dynamically modified query is optimized and the parsed statement can be shared and reused. This means that rewritten queries can take advantage of the high performance features of Oracle such as dictionary caching and shared cursors.

   






Note:



For performance reasons, parsed static SQL statements in instantiated PL/SQL packages may not get re-parsed. If you want to force the re-evaluation of the policy function, Oracle recommends that you use dynamic SQL.  









   


 Example of a Dynamically Modified Statement




Suppose you want to attach to the ORDERS_TAB table the following security policy: "Customers can see only their own orders." The process would be as follows.




You create a package to add a predicate to a user's DML statement. 

  






Note:



A predicate is the WHERE clause and, more explicitly, a selection criteria clause based on one of the operators (=, !=, IS, IS NOT, >, >=).  









  


In this case, you might create a package that adds the following predicate:

     
 Cust_no = (SELECT Custno FROM Customers WHERE Custname = 
            SYS_CONTEXT ('userenv','session_user'))


     
A user enters the statement: 

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab


     
The Oracle server calls the package you created to implement the security policy.


The package dynamically modifies the user's statement to read:

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab WHERE Custno = (
   SELECT Custno FROM Customers 
       WHERE Custname = SYS_CONTEXT('userenv', 'session_user'))


     
The Oracle server executes the dynamically modified statement.


Upon execution, the package uses the username returned by SYS_CONTEXT  ('userenv','session_user')  to look up the corresponding customer and to limit the data returned from the ORDERS_TAB table to that customer's data only.

  





See Also:



For more information on using Fine-grained access control, see "Examples" and Oracle8i Supplied Packages Reference  









  



 Using Application Context within a Fine-Grained Access Control Package




To make the implementation of a security policy easier, you have the option of using application context within a fine-grained access control package. 



Using Application Context as a Secure Data Cache



Accessing an application context inside your fine-grained access control policy function is like writing down an often-used phone number and posting it next to your phone,  where you can find it easily, rather than looking it up every time you need it. 




For example, suppose you base access to the ORDERS_TAB table on customer number. Rather than querying the customer number for a logged-in user each time you need it, you could store it in the application context. This way, the customer number is available when you need it.



Designing a Fine-Grained Access Control Policy to Return a Specific Predicate for an Attribute



Suppose an attribute of the Order Entry context is position. You can return different predicates depending on that attribute. Thus, you can enable a user in the Clerk position to retrieve all orders, but a user in the Customer position to see his own records only.




To design a fine-grained access control policy to return a specific predicate for an attribute, access the application context within the package that implements the policy. For example, to limit customers to seeing their own records only, use fine-grained access control to dynamically modify the user's query from this:

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab


     


to this: 

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab 
   WHERE Custno = SYS_CONTEXT ('order_entry', 'cust_num');


  





See Also:



"Application Context" and "Examples".  









   


 Examples




This section provides three examples, each using application context within a fine-grained access control package.




 Example 1: Order Entry Application




This simple example uses application context to implement the policy: 'Customers can see their own orders only.' This example guides you through the following tasks in building the application:




Create a PL/SQL package which sets the context for the application


Create an application context


Access the application context inside the package that implements the security policy on the database object


Create the new security policy

  





See Also:



Compare and contrast this example, which uses an application context within the dynamically generated predicate, with "Example of a Dynamically Modified Statement", which uses a subquery in the predicate.  









  



The procedure in this example:




Assumes a one-to-one relationship between users and customers


Finds the user's customer number (Cust_num)


Caches the customer number in the application context





You can later refer to the cust_num attribute of your order entry context (order_entry_ctx) inside the security policy package. 

   






Note:



You could use a logon trigger to set the initial context.  















See Also:



Chapter  13, "Using Triggers"  









   

Create a PL/SQL package which sets the context for the application
     
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE apps.oe_ctx AS
   PROCEDURE set_cust_num ;
END;

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY apps.oe_ctx AS
   PROCEDURE set_cust_num IS
     custnum NUMBER;
   BEGIN
      SELECT cust_no INTO custnum FROM customers WHERE username =
         SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV', 'session_user');
     /* SET cust_num attribute in 'order_entry' context */
         DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('order_entry', 'cust_num', custnum);
         DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('order_entry', 'cust_num', custnum);
   END set_cust_num;
 END;

  






Note:



This example does not treat error handling.


You can access session primitives--such as session user--by using SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV', desired session primitive).


For more information, see Oracle8i SQL Reference.  









   

Create an application context
     
CREATE CONTEXT Order_entry USING Apps.Oe_ctx;

     

Access the application context inside the package that implements the security policy on the database object
   






Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work:    
CREATE PACKAGE Oe_security AS 
FUNCTION Custnum_sec (D1 VARCHAR2, D2 VARCHAR2) 
RETURN VARCHAR2; 
END;
      









   


The package body appends a dynamic predicate to SELECT statements on the ORDERS_TAB table. This predicate limits the orders returned to those of the user's customer number by accessing the cust_num context attribute, instead of a subquery to the customers table.

     
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY Oe_security AS

/* limits select statements based on customer number: */
FUNCTION Custnum_sec (D1 VARCHAR2, D2 VARCHAR2) RETURN VARCHAR2
IS
    D_predicate VARCHAR2 (2000)
    BEGIN
     D_predicate = 'cust_no = SYS_CONTEXT("order_entry", "cust_num")';
     RETURN D_predicate;    
    END Custnum_sec;
END Oe_security;

     

Create the new security policy
   






Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work:    
CONNECT sys/change_on_install AS sysdba;
CREATE USER secusr IDENTIFIED BY secusr;
      









     
DBMS_RLS.ADD_POLICY ('scott', 'orders_tab', 'oe_policy', 'secusr',
                     'oe_security.custnum_sec', 'select')


        


This statement adds a policy named OE_POLICY to the ORDERS_TAB table for viewing in schema SCOTT. The SECUSR.OE_SECURITY.CUSTNUM_SEC function implements the policy, is stored in the SECUSR schema, and applies to SELECT statements only.




Now, any select statement by a customer on the ORDERS_TAB table automatically returns only that customer's orders. In other words, the dynamic predicate modifies the user's statement from this:

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab;

     







to this:

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab 
   WHERE Custno = SYS_CONTEXT('order_entry','cust_num'); 


     


Note the following with regard to this example:




In reality, you might have several predicates based on a user's position. For example, a sales rep would be able to see records for all his customers, and an order entry clerk would be able to see any customer order. You could expand the custnum_sec function to return different predicates based on the user's position context value.


The use of application context in a fine-grained access control package effectively gives you a bind variable in a parsed statement. For example:

     
SELECT * FROM Orders_tab 
   WHERE Custno = SYS_CONTEXT('order_entry', 'cust_num')
     


          



This is fully parsed and optimized, but the evaluation of the user's CUST_NUM attribute value for the ORDER_ENTRY context takes place at execution. This means that you get the benefit of an optimized statement which executes differently for each user executing the statement. 

  






Note:



You can improve the performance of the function in this example even more by indexing CUST_NO.  









  
You could set your context attributes based on data from a database table or tables, or from a directory server using LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol).





 Example 2: Human Resources Application #1




This example uses application context to control user access by way of a Human Resources application. It guides you through the following three tasks, each of which is described more fully below.




Create a PL/SQL package with a number of functions that sets the context for the application


Create the context and associate it with the package


Create the initialization script for the application





In this example, assume that the application context for the Human Resources application is assigned to the HR_CTX namespace.



Create a PL/SQL package with a number of functions that sets the context for the application
   






Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work:    
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE apps.hr_sec_ctx IS 
   PROCEDURE set_resp_id (respid NUMBER);
   PROCEDURE set_org_id (orgid NUMBER);
  /* PROCEDURE validate_respid (respid NUMBER); */
  /* PROCEDURE validate_org_id (orgid NUMBER); */
END hr_sec_ctx;
      









   


APPS is the schema owning the package.

     
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY apps.hr_sec_ctx IS
/* function to set responsibility id */
PROCEDURE set_resp_id (respid NUMBER) IS
BEGIN

/* validate respid based on primitive and other context */
/*    validate_respid (respid); */

/* set resp_id attribute under namespace 'hr_ctx'*/
    DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_ctx', 'resp_id', respid);
END set_resp_id;

/* function to set organization id */
PROCEDURE set_org_id (orgid NUMBER) IS
  
BEGIN
/* validate organization ID */
/*    validate_org_id(orgid); /*
/* set org_id attribute under namespace 'hr_ctx' */
    DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_ctx', 'org_id', orgid);
END set_org_id;

/* more functions to set other attributes for the HR application */
END hr_sec_ctx;

     

Create the context and associate it with the package
     
CREATE CONTEXT Hr_ctx USING Apps.Hr_sec_ctx;

     

Create the initialization script for the application 



Suppose that the execute privilege on the package HR_SEC_CTX has been granted to the schema running the application. Part of the script will make calls to set various attributes of the HR_CTX context. Here, we do not show how the context is determined. Normally, it is based on the primitive context or other derived context.

     
APPS.HR_SEC_CTX.SET_RESP_ID(1);
APPS.HR_SEC_CTX.SET_ORG_ID(101);



     


The SYS_CONTEXT function can be used for data access control based on this application context. For example, the base table HR_ORGANIZATION_UNIT can be secured by a view that restricts access to rows based on attribute ORG_ID:

   






Caution:



You may need to set up data structures for certain examples to work:    
CREATE TABLE hr_organization_unit (organization_id NUMBER);
      









     
CREATE VIEW Hr_organization_secv AS 
   SELECT * FROM hr_organization_unit 
      WHERE Organization_id = SYS_CONTEXT('hr_ctx','org_id');

        


 Example 3: Human Resources Application #2

   






Note:



You may need to set up the following data structures for certain examples to work:    
CREATE TABLE Payroll(
   Srate  NUMBER, 
   Orate  NUMBER, 
   Acctno NUMBER, 
   Empno  NUMBER, 
   Name   VARCHAR2(20));
CREATE TABLE Directory_u(
   Empno NUMBER, 
   Mgrno NUMBER, 
   Rank  NUMBER);
CREATE SEQUENCE Empno_seq
CREATE SEQUENCE Rank_seq
      









   


This example illustrates the use of the following security features in Oracle8i release 8.1.4:




Event triggers


Application context


Fine-grained access control


Encapsulation of privileges in stored procedures





In this example, we associate a security policy with the table called DIRECTORY which has the following columns:




EMPNO--identification number for each employee


MGRID--employee identification number for the manager of each employee


RANK--position of the employee in the corporate hierarchy





The security policy associated with this table has two elements:




All users can find the MGRID for a specific EMPNO.







To implement this, we create a definer's right package in the Human Resources schema (HR) to do SELECT on the table



Managers can update the positions in the corporate hierarchy of only their direct subordinates. To do this they must use only the designated application.







To implement this: 




Define fine-grained access policies on the table based on EMPNO and application context.


Set EMPNO by using a logon trigger.


Set the application context by using the designated package for processing the updates (event triggers and application context).








Note:



In this example, we grant UPDATE privileges on the table to public, because fine-grained access control prevents an unauthorized user from wrongly modifying a given row.  









     
CONNECT system/manager AS sysdba
GRANT CONNECT,RESOURCE,UNLIMITED TABLESPACE,CREATE ANY CONTEXT, CREATE 
PROCEDURE, CREATE ANY TRIGGER TO HR IDENTIFIED BY HR;
CONNECT hr/hr;
CREATE TABLE Directory (Empno   NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
                        Mgrno   NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
                        Rank    NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL);

CREATE TABLE Payroll (Empno  NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
                      Name   VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL );

/* seed the tables with a couple of managers: */
INSERT INTO Directory VALUES (1, 1, 1.0);
INSERT INTO Payroll VALUES (1, 'KING');
INSERT INTO Directory VALUES (2, 1, 5);
INSERT INTO Payroll VALUES (2, 'CLARK');

/* Create the sequence number for EMPNO: */
CREATE SEQUENCE Empno_seq START WITH 5;

/* Create the sequence number for RANK:  */
CREATE SEQUENCE Rank_seq START WITH 100;

CREATE OR REPLACE CONTEXT Hr_app USING Hr.Hr0_pck;
CREATE OR REPLACE CONTEXT Hr_sec USING Hr.Hr1_pck;

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE Hr0_pck IS
PROCEDURE adjustrankby1(Empno NUMBER);
END;

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE BODY Hr0_pck IS
/* raise the rank of the empno by 1:  */
PROCEDURE Adjustrankby1(Empno NUMBER)
IS
   Stmt   VARCHAR2(100);
   BEGIN
   
   /*Set context to indicate application state */
   DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_app','adjstate',1);
   /* Now we can issue DML statement:  */
   Stmt := 'UPDATE SET Rank := Rank +1 FROM Directory d WHERE d.Empno = ' 
   || Empno;
   EXECUTE IMMEDIATE STMT;

/* Re-set application state: */
   DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_app','adjstate',0);
   END;
END;

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE hr1_pck IS PROCEDURE setid;
END;
/
/* Based on userid, find EMPNO, and set it in application context */

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE BODY Hr1_pck IS
PROCEDURE setid
  IS
  id NUMBER;
  BEGIN
    SELECT Empno INTO id FROM Payroll WHERE Name = 
      SYS_CONTEXT('userenv','session_user') ;
    DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_sec','empno',id);
    DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_sec','appid',id);
  EXCEPTION
    /* For purposes of demonstration insert into payroll table 
    /  so that user can continue on and run example. */
    WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
      INSERT INTO Payroll (Empno, Name) 
         VALUES (Empno_seq.NEXTVAL, SYS_CONTEXT('userenv','session_user'));
      INSERT INTO Directory (Empno, Mgrno, Rank)
         VALUES (Empno_seq.CURRVAL, 2, Rank_seq.NEXTVAL);
      SELECT Empno INTO id FROM Payroll WHERE Name =
        sys_context('userenv','session_user') ;
      DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_sec','empno',id);
      DBMS_SESSION.SET_CONTEXT('hr_sec','appid',id);
    WHEN OTHERS THEN
      NULL;
    /* If this is to be fired via a "logon" trigger,
    /  you need to handle exceptions if you want the user to continue
    /  logging into the database. */ 
  END;
END;

GRANT EXECUTE ON Hr1_pck TO public;

CONNECT system/manager AS sysdba 

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER Databasetrigger

AFTER LOGON
ON DATABASE
BEGIN
   hr.Hr1_pck.Setid;
END;

/* Creates the package for finding the MGRID for a particular EMPNO 
using definer's right (encapsulated privileges). Note that users are 
granted EXECUTE privileges only on this package, and not on the table 
(DIRECTORY) it is querying. */

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE hr2_pck IS
   FUNCTION Findmgr(Empno NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER;
END;

CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE BODY hr2_pck IS
   /* insert a new employee record: */
   FUNCTION findmgr(empno number) RETURN NUMBER IS
   Mgrid NUMBER;
   BEGIN
      SELECT mgrno INTO mgrid FROM directory WHERE mgrid = empno;
   RETURN mgrid;
   END;
END;

CREATE or REPLACE FUNCTION secure_updates(ns varchar2,na varchar2) 
  RETURN VARCHAR2 IS 
     Results VARCHAR2(100);
    BEGIN
       /* Only allow updates when designated application has set the session 
       state to indicate we are inside it. */
       IF (sys_context('hr_sec','adjstate') = 1)
          THEN results := 'mgr = SYS_CONTEXT("hr_sec","empno")';
       ELSE results := '1=2';
      END IF;
      RETURN Results;
   END;

/* Attaches fine-grained access policy to all update operations on 
hr.directory */

CONNECT system/manager AS sysdba;
BEGIN
   DBMS_RLS.ADD_POLICY('hr','directory_u','secure_update','hr',
                       'secure_updates','update',TRUE,TRUE);
END;