This appendix provides examples of how to accomplish some popular tasks. The examples are written either in Fortran or ANSI C, and many depend on the current versions of libm and libsunmath. These examples were tested with Oracle Solaris Studio 12.4 on an Oracle Solaris 10 Update 10 OS or later release. C examples are compiled using the –lsunmath –lm options.
The following examples show one way you can examine the hexadecimal representations of floating-point numbers. Note that you can also use the debuggers to look at the hexadecimal representations of stored data.
The following C program prints a double precision approximation to π and single precision infinity:
Example A-1 Double Precision Example#include <math.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
int main() {
union {
float flt;
unsigned un;
} r;
union {
double dbl;
unsigned un[2];
} d;
/* double precision */
d.dbl = M_PI;
(void) printf("DP Approx pi = %08x %08x = %18.17e \n",
d.un[0], d.un[1], d.dbl);
/* single precision */
r.flt = infinityf();
(void) printf("Single Precision %8.7e : %08x \n",
r.flt, r.un);
return 0;
}
On SPARC-based systems, compiled with –lsunmath, the output of the preceding program looks like the following:
DP Approx pi = 400921fb 54442d18 = 3.14159265358979312e+00 Single Precision Infinity: 7f800000
The following Fortran program prints the smallest normal numbers in each format:
Example A-2 Print Smallest Normal Numbers in Each Format (Continued)
program print_ieee_values
c
c the purpose of the implicit statements is to ensure
c that the floatingpoint pseudo-intrinsic functions
c are declared with the correct type
c
implicit real*16 (q)
implicit double precision (d)
implicit real (r)
real*16 z
double precision x
real r
c
z = q_min_normal()
write(*,7) z, z
7 format('min normal, quad: ',1pe47.37e4,/,' in hex ',z32.32)
c
x = d_min_normal()
write(*,14) x, x
14 format('min normal, double: ',1pe23.16,' in hex ',z16.16)
c
r = r_min_normal()
write(*,27) r, r
27 format('min normal, single: ',1pe14.7,' in hex ',z8.8)
c
end
On SPARC-based systems, the corresponding output reads as follows:
min normal, quad: 3.3621031431120935062626778173217526026E-4932 in hex 00010000000000000000000000000000 min normal, double: 2.2250738585072014-308 in hex 0010000000000000 min normal, single: 1.1754944E-38 in hex 00800000
This section shows examples that use functions from the math library.
The following example calls a random number generator to generate an array of numbers and uses a timing function to measure the time it takes to compute the EXP of the given numbers:
Example A-3 Random Number Generator#ifdef DP #define GENERIC double precision #else #define GENERIC real #endif #define SIZE 400000 program example c implicit GENERIC (a-h,o-z) GENERIC x(SIZE), y, lb, ub real tarray(2), u1, u2 c c compute EXP on random numbers in [-ln2/2,ln2/2] lb = -0.3465735903 ub = 0.3465735903 c c generate array of random numbers #ifdef DP call d_init_addrans() call d_addrans(x,SIZE,lb,ub) #else call r_init_addrans() call r_addrans(x,SIZE,lb,ub) #endif c c start the clock call dtime(tarray) u1 = tarray(1) c c compute exponentials do 16 i=1,SIZE y = exp(x(i)) 16 continue c c get the elapsed time call dtime(tarray) u2 = tarray(1) print *,'time used by EXP is ',u2-u1 print *,'last values for x and exp(x) are ',x(SIZE),y c call flush(6) end
To compile the preceding example, place the source code in a file with the suffix F (not f) so that the compiler will automatically invoke the preprocessor, and specify either –DSP or –DDP on the command line to select single or double precision.
This example shows how to use the d_addrans function to generate blocks of random data uniformly distributed over a user-specified range:
Example A-4 Using the d_addrans Function/*
* test SIZE*LOOPS random arguments to sin in the range
* [0, threshold] where
* threshold = 3E30000000000000 (3.72529029846191406e-09)
*/
#include <math.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
#define SIZE 10000
#define LOOPS 100
int main()
{
double x[SIZE], y[SIZE];
int i, j, n;
double lb, ub;
union {
unsigned u[2];
double d;
} upperbound;
upperbound.u[0] = 0x3e300000;
upperbound.u[1] = 0x00000000;
/* initialize the random number generator */
d_init_addrans_();
/* test (SIZE * LOOPS) arguments to sin */
for (j = 0; j < LOOPS; j++) {
/*
* generate a vector, x, of length SIZE,
* of random numbers to use as
* input to the trig functions.
*/
n = SIZE;
ub = upperbound.d;
lb = 0.0;
d_addrans_(x, &n, &lb, &ub);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
y[i] = sin(x[i]);
/* is sin(x) == x? It ought to, for tiny x. */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (x[i] != y[i])
printf(
" OOPS: %d sin(%18.17e)=%18.17e \n",
i, x[i], y[i]);
}
printf(" comparison ended; no differences\n");
ieee_retrospective_();
return 0;
}
The following Fortran example uses some functions recommended by the IEEE standard:
Example A-5 IEEE Recommended Functionsc
c Demonstrate how to call 5 of the more interesting IEEE
c recommended functions from Fortran. These are implemented
c with "bit-twiddling", and so are as efficient as you could
c hope. The IEEE standard for floating-point arithmetic
c doesn't require these, but recommends that they be
c included in any IEEE programming environment.
c
c For example, to accomplish
c y = x * 2**n,
c since the hardware stores numbers in base 2,
c shift the exponent by n places.
c
c Refer to
c ieee_functions(3m)
c libm_double(3f)
c libm_single(3f)
c
c The 5 functions demonstrated here are:
c
c ilogb(x): returns the base 2 unbiased exponent of x in
c integer format
c signbit(x): returns the sign bit, 0 or 1
c copysign(x,y): returns x with y's sign bit
c nextafter(x,y): next representable number after x, in
c the direction y
c scalbn(x,n): x * 2**n
c
c function double precision single precision
c --------------------------------------------------------
c ilogb(x) i = id_ilogb(x) i = ir_ilogb(r)
c signbit(x) i = id_signbit(x) i = ir_signbit(r)
c copysign(x,y) x = d_copysign(x,y) r = r_copysign(r,s)
c nextafter(x,y) z = d_nextafter(x,y) r = r_nextafter(r,s)
c scalbn(x,n) x = d_scalbn(x,n) r = r_scalbn(r,n)
program ieee_functions_demo
implicit double precision (d)
implicit real (r)
double precision x, y, z, direction
real r, s, t, r_direction
integer i, scale
print *
print *, 'DOUBLE PRECISION EXAMPLES:'
print *
x = 32.0d0
i = id_ilogb(x)
write(*,1) x, i
1 format(' The base 2 exponent of ', F4.1, ' is ', I2)
x = -5.5d0
y = 12.4d0
z = d_copysign(x,y)
write(*,2) x, y, z
2 format(F5.1, ' was given the sign of ', F4.1,
* ' and is now ', F4.1)
x = -5.5d0
i = id_signbit(x)
print *, 'The sign bit of ', x, ' is ', i
x = d_min_subnormal()
direction = -d_infinity()
y = d_nextafter(x, direction)
write(*,3) x
3 format(' Starting from ', 1PE23.16E3,
- ', the next representable number ')
write(*,4) direction, y
4 format(' towards ', F4.1, ' is ', 1PE23.16E3)
x = d_min_subnormal()
direction = 1.0d0
y = d_nextafter(x, direction)
write(*,3) x
write(*,4) direction, y
x = 2.0d0
scale = 3
y = d_scalbn(x, scale)
write (*,5) x, scale, y
5 format(' Scaling ', F4.1, ' by 2**', I1, ' is ', F4.1)
print *
print *, 'SINGLE PRECISION EXAMPLES:'
print *
r = 32.0
i = ir_ilogb(r)
write (*,1) r, i
r = -5.5
i = ir_signbit(r)
print *, 'The sign bit of ', r, ' is ', i
r = -5.5
s = 12.4
t = r_copysign(r,s)
write (*,2) r, s, t
r = r_min_subnormal()
r_direction = -r_infinity()
s = r_nextafter(r, r_direction)
write(*,3) r
write(*,4) r_direction, s
r = r_min_subnormal()
r_direction = 1.0e0
s = r_nextafter(r, r_direction)
write(*,3) r
write(*,4) r_direction, s
r = 2.0
scale = 3
s = r_scalbn(r, scale)
write (*,5) r, scale, y
print *
end
The output from this program is shown in the following example.
Example A-6 Output of Example A-5DOUBLE PRECISION EXAMPLES: The base 2 exponent of 32.0 is 5 -5.5 was given the sign of 12.4 and is now 5.5 The sign bit of -5.5 is 1 Starting from 4.9406564584124654E-324, the next representable number towards -Inf is 0.0000000000000000E+000 Starting from 4.9406564584124654E-324, the next representable number towards 1.0 is 9.8813129168249309E-324 Scaling 2.0 by 2**3 is 16.0 SINGLE PRECISION EXAMPLES: The base 2 exponent of 32.0 is 5 The sign bit of -5.5 is 1 -5.5 was given the sign of 12.4 and is now 5.5 Starting from 1.4012984643248171E-045, the next representable number towards -Inf is 0.0000000000000000E+000 Starting from 1.4012984643248171E-045, the next representable number towards 1.0 is 2.8025969286496341E-045 Scaling 2.0 by 2**3 is 16.0
If using the f95 compiler with the -f77 compatibility option, the following additional messages are displayed.
Note: IEEE floating-point exception flags raised:
Inexact; Underflow;
IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled:
overflow; division by zero; invalid operation;
See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_flags(3M), ieee_handler(3M)
The following C program calls several of the ieee_values(3m) functions:
#include <math.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
int main()
{
double x;
float r;
x = quiet_nan(0);
printf("quiet NaN: %.16e = %08x %08x \n",
x, ((int *) &x)[0], ((int *) &x)[1]);
x = nextafter(max_subnormal(), 0.0);
printf("nextafter(max_subnormal,0) = %.16e\n",x);
printf(" = %08x %08x\n",
((int *) &x)[0], ((int *) &x)[1]);
r = min_subnormalf();
printf("single precision min subnormal = %.8e = %08x\n",
r, ((int *) &r)[0]);
return 0;
}
Remember to specify both -lsunmath and -lm when linking.
On SPARC-based systems, the output looks like the following:
quiet NaN: NaN = 7ff80000 00000000 nextafter(max_subnormal,0) = 2.2250738585072004e-308 = 000fffff fffffffe single precision min subnormal = 1.40129846e-45 = 00000001
Because the x86 architecture is “little-endian”, the output on x86 is slightly different, such that the high and low order words of the hexadecimal representations of the double precision numbers are reversed:
quiet NaN: NaN = ffffffff 7fffffff
nextafter(max_subnormal,0) = 2.2250738585072004e-308
= fffffffe 000fffff
single precision min subnormal = 1.40129846e-45 = 00000001
Fortran programs that use ieee_values functions should take care to declare those functions' types:
program print_ieee_values c c the purpose of the implicit statements is to insure c that the floating-point pseudo-instrinsic c functions are declared with the correct type c implicit real*16 (q) implicit double precision (d) implicit real (r) real*16 z, zero, one double precision x real r c zero = 0.0 one = 1.0 z = q_nextafter(zero, one) x = d_infinity() r = r_max_normal() c print *, z print *, x print *, r c end
On SPARC, the output reads as follows:
6.475175119438025110924438958227646E-4966 Inf 3.4028235E+38
The following example demonstrates how to set the rounding mode to round towards zero:
#include <math.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
int main()
{
int i;
double x, y;
char *out_1, *out_2, *dummy;
/* get prevailing rounding direction */
i = ieee_flags("get", "direction", "", &out_1);
x = sqrt(.5);
printf("With rounding direction %s, \n", out_1);
printf("sqrt(.5) = 0x%08x 0x%08x = %16.15e\n",
((int *) &x)[0], ((int *) &x)[1], x);
/* set rounding direction */
if (ieee_flags("set", "direction", "tozero", &dummy) != 0)
printf("Not able to change rounding direction!\n");
i = ieee_flags("get", "direction", "", &out_2);
x = sqrt(.5);
/*
* restore original rounding direction before printf, since
* printf is also affected by the current rounding direction
*/
if (ieee_flags("set", "direction", out_1, &dummy) != 0)
printf("Not able to change rounding direction!\n");
printf("\nWith rounding direction %s,\n", out_2);
printf("sqrt(.5) = 0x%08x 0x%08x = %16.15e\n",
((int *) &x)[0], ((int *) &x)[1], x);
return 0;
}
The following output of the previous rounding direction short program shows the effects of rounding towards zero on SPARC:
demo% cc rounding_direction.c -lsunmath -lm demo% a.out With rounding direction nearest, sqrt(.5) = 0x3fe6a09e 0x667f3bcd = 7.071067811865476e-01 With rounding direction tozero, sqrt(.5) = 0x3fe6a09e 0x667f3bcc = 7.071067811865475e-01 demo%
The following output of the previous rounding direction short program shows the effects of rounding towards zero on x86:
demo% cc rounding_direction.c -lsunmath -lm demo% a.out With rounding direction nearest, sqrt(.5) = 0x667f3bcd 0x3fe6a09e = 7.071067811865476e-01 With rounding direction tozero, sqrt(.5) = 0x667f3bcc 0x3fe6a09e = 7.071067811865475e-01 demo%
To set rounding direction towards zero from a Fortran program, use the following example:
program ieee_flags_demo
character*16 out
i = ieee_flags('set', 'direction', 'tozero', out)
if (i.ne.0) print *, 'not able to set rounding direction'
i = ieee_flags('get', 'direction', '', out)
print *, 'Rounding direction is: ', out
end
The output is as follows:
demo% f95 ieee_flags_demo.f demo% a.out Rounding direction is: tozero
If the program is compiled using the f95 compiler with the -f77 compatibility option, the output includes the following additional messages.
demo% f95 ieee_flags_demo.f -f77
demo% a.out
Note: Rounding direction toward zero
IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled:
overflow; division by zero; invalid operation;
See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_flags(3M), ieee_handler(3M)
The next example illustrates the use of several of the C99 floating-point environment functions. The norm function computes the Euclidean norm of a vector and uses the environment functions to handle underflow and overflow. The main program calls this function with vectors that are scaled to ensure that underflows and overflows occur, as the retrospective diagnostic output shows
Example A-7 C99 Floating-Point Environment Functions#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
#include <fenv.h>
/*
* Compute the euclidean norm of the vector x avoiding
* premature underflow or overflow
*/
double norm(int n, double *x)
{
fenv_t env;
double s, b, d, t;
int i, f;
/* save the environment, clear flags, and establish nonstop
exception handling */
feholdexcept(&env);
/* attempt to compute the dot product x.x */
d = 1.0; /* scale factor */
s = 0.0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
s += x[i] * x[i];
/* check for underflow or overflow */
f = fetestexcept(FE_UNDERFLOW | FE_OVERFLOW);
if (f & FE_OVERFLOW) {
/* first attempt overflowed, try again scaling down */
feclearexcept(FE_OVERFLOW);
b = scalbn(1.0, -640);
d = 1.0 / b;
s = 0.0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
t = b * x[i];
s += t * t;
}
}
else if (f & FE_UNDERFLOW && s < scalbn(1.0, -970)) {
/* first attempt underflowed, try again scaling up */
b = scalbn(1.0, 1022);
d = 1.0 / b;
s = 0.0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
t = b * x[i];
s += t * t;
}
}
/* hide any underflows that have occurred so far */
feclearexcept(FE_UNDERFLOW);
/* restore the environment, raising any other exceptions
that have occurred */
feupdateenv(&env);
/* take the square root and undo any scaling */
return d * sqrt(s);
}
int main()
{
double x[100], l, u;
int n = 100;
fex_set_log(stdout);
l = 0.0;
u = min_normal();
d_lcrans_(x, &n, &l, &u);
printf("norm: %g\n", norm(n, x));
l = sqrt(max_normal());
u = l * 2.0;
d_lcrans_(x, &n, &l, &u);
printf("norm: %g\n", norm(n, x));
return 0;
}
On SPARC-based systems, compiling and running this program produces output like the following:
demo% cc norm.c -lsunmath -lm demo% a.out Floating point underflow at 0x000153a8 __d_lcrans_, nonstop mode 0x000153b4 __d_lcrans_ 0x00011594 main Floating point underflow at 0x00011244 norm, nonstop mode 0x00011248 norm 0x000115b4 main norm: 1.32533e-307 Floating point overflow at 0x00011244 norm, nonstop mode 0x00011248 norm 0x00011660 main norm: 2.02548e+155
The following code example shows the effect of the fesetprec function on x86-based systems. This function is not available on SPARC-based systems. The while loops attempt to determine the available precision by finding the largest power of two that rounds off entirely when it is added to one. As the first loop shows, this technique does not always work as expected on architectures like x86-based systems that evaluate all intermediate results in extended precision. Thus, the fesetprec function can be used to guarantee that all results will be rounded to the desired precision, as the second loop shows.
Example A-8 fesetprec Function (x86)#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main()
{
double x;
x = 1.0;
while (1.0 + x != 1.0)
x *= 0.5;
printf("%d significant bits\n", -ilogb(x));
fesetprec(FE_DBLPREC);
x = 1.0;
while (1.0 + x != 1.0)
x *= 0.5;
printf("%d significant bits\n", -ilogb(x));
return 0;
}
Compiling on x86 systems with cc A8.c –lm –xarch=386 creates
64 significant bits 53 significant bit
Finally, the following example shows one way to use the environment functions in a multithreaded program to propagate floating-point modes from a parent thread to a child thread and recover exception flags raised in the child thread when it joins with the parent. See the Multithreaded Programming Guide for more information on writing multi-threaded programs.
Example A-9 Using Environment Functions in a Multithread Program#include <thread.h>
#include <fenv.h>
fenv_t env;
void * child(void *p)
{
/* inherit the parent's environment on entry */
fesetenv(&env);
...
/* save the child's environment before exit */
fegetenv(&env);
}
void parent()
{
thread_t tid;
void *arg;
...
/* save the parent's environment before creating the child */
fegetenv(&env);
thr_create(NULL, NULL, child, arg, NULL, &tid);
...
/* join with the child */
thr_join(tid, NULL, &arg);
/* merge exception flags raised in the child into the
parent's environment */
fex_merge_flags(&env);
...
}
Generally, a user program examines or clears the accrued exception bits. The following example is a C program that examines the accrued exception flags.
Example A-10 Examining the Accrued Exception Flags#include <sunmath.h>
#include <sys/ieeefp.h>
int main()
{
int code, inexact, division, underflow, overflow, invalid;
double x;
char *out;
/* cause an underflow exception */
x = max_subnormal() / 2.0;
/* this statement insures that the previous */
/* statement is not optimized away */
printf("x = %g\n",x);
/* find out which exceptions are raised */
code = ieee_flags("get", "exception", "", &out);
/* decode the return value */
inexact = (code >> fp_inexact) & 0x1;
underflow = (code >> fp_underflow) & 0x1;
division = (code >> fp_division) & 0x1;
overflow = (code >> fp_overflow) & 0x1;
invalid = (code >> fp_invalid) & 0x1;
/* "out" is the raised exception with the highest priority */
printf(" Highest priority exception is: %s\n", out);
/* The value 1 means the exception is raised, */
/* 0 means it isn't. */
printf("%d %d %d %d %d\n", invalid, overflow, division,
underflow, inexact);
ieee_retrospective_();
return 0;
}
The output from running the previous program is as follows:
demo% a.out
x = 1.11254e-308
Highest priority exception is: underflow
0 0 0 1 1
Note:IEEE floating-point exception flags raised:
Inexact; Underflow;
See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_flags(3M)
The same can be done from Fortran:
Example A-11 Examining the Accrued Exception Flags – Fortran/*
A Fortran example that:
* causes an underflow exception
* uses ieee_flags to determine which exceptions are raised
* decodes the integer value returned by ieee_flags
* clears all outstanding exceptions
Remember to save this program in a file with the suffix .F, so that
the c preprocessor is invoked to bring in the header file
floatingpoint.h.
*/
#include <floatingpoint.h>
program decode_accrued_exceptions
double precision x
integer accrued, inx, div, under, over, inv
character*16 out
double precision d_max_subnormal
c Cause an underflow exception
x = d_max_subnormal() / 2.0
c Find out which exceptions are raised
accrued = ieee_flags('get', 'exception', '', out)
c Decode value returned by ieee_flags using bit-shift intrinsics
inx = and(rshift(accrued, fp_inexact) , 1)
under = and(rshift(accrued, fp_underflow), 1)
div = and(rshift(accrued, fp_division) , 1)
over = and(rshift(accrued, fp_overflow) , 1)
inv = and(rshift(accrued, fp_invalid) , 1)
c The exception with the highest priority is returned in "out"
print *, "Highest priority exception is ", out
c The value 1 means the exception is raised; 0 means it is not
print *, inv, over, div, under, inx
c Clear all outstanding exceptions
i = ieee_flags('clear', 'exception', 'all', out)
end
The output is as follows:
Highest priority exception is underflow 0 0 0 1 1
While it is unusual for a user program to set exception flags, it can be done. This is demonstrated in the following C example.
#include <sunmath.h>
int main()
{
int code;
char *out;
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf("could not clear exceptions\n");
if (ieee_flags("set", "exception", "division", &out) != 0)
printf("could not set exception\n");
code = ieee_flags("get", "exception", "", &out);
printf("out is: %s , fp exception code is: %X \n",
out, code);
return 0;
}
On SPARC, the output from the preceding program is:
out is: division , fp exception code is: 2
On x86, the output is:
out is: division , fp exception code is: 4
The following is a Fortran program that installs a signal handler to locate an exception, for SPARC-based systems only:
Example A-12 Trap on Underflow (SPARC) program demo
c declare signal handler function
external fp_exc_hdl
double precision d_min_normal
double precision x
c set up signal handler
i = ieee_handler('set', 'common', fp_exc_hdl)
if (i.ne.0) print *, 'ieee trapping not supported here'
c cause an underflow exception (it will not be trapped)
x = d_min_normal() / 13.0
print *, 'd_min_normal() / 13.0 = ', x
c cause an overflow exception
c the value printed out is unrelated to the result
x = 1.0d300
x = x * x
print *, '1.0d300*1.0d300 = ', x
end
c
c the floating-point exception handling function
c
integer function fp_exc_hdl(sig, sip, uap)
integer sig, code, addr
character label*16
c
c The structure /siginfo/ is a translation of siginfo_t
c from <sys/siginfo.h>
c
structure /fault/
integer address
end structure
structure /siginfo/
integer si_signo
integer si_code
integer si_errno
record /fault/ fault
end structure
record /siginfo/ sip
c See <sys/machsig.h> for list of FPE codes
c Figure out the name of the SIGFPE
code = sip.si_code
if (code.eq.3) label = 'division'
if (code.eq.4) label = 'overflow'
if (code.eq.5) label = 'underflow'
if (code.eq.6) label = 'inexact'
if (code.eq.7) label = 'invalid'
addr = sip.fault.address
c Print information about the signal that happened
write (*,77) code, label, addr
77 format ('floating-point exception code ', i2, ',',
* a17, ',', ' at address ', z8 )
end
When the previous code is compiled with –f77, the output is as follows:
d_min_normal() / 13.0 = 1.7115952757748-309
floating-point exception code 4, overflow , at address 1131C
1.0d300*1.0d300 = 1.0000000000000+300
Note: IEEE floating-point exception flags raised:
Inexact; Underflow;
IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled:
overflow; division by zero; invalid operation;
See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_flags(3M),
ieee_handler(3M)
The following is a more complex C example on a SPARC-based system:
Example A-13 Trap on Invalid, Division by 0, Overflow, Underflow, and Inexact (SPARC)/*
* Generate the 5 IEEE exceptions: invalid, division,
* overflow, underflow and inexact.
*
* Trap on any floating point exception, print a message,
* and continue.*
* Note that you could also inquire about raised exceptions by
* i = ieee("get","exception","",&out);* where out contains the name of the highest exception
* raised, and i can be decoded to find out about all the
* exceptions raised.
*/
#include <sunmath.h>
#include <signal.h>
#include <siginfo.h>
#include <ucontext.h>
extern void trap_all_fp_exc(int sig, siginfo_t *sip,
ucontext_t *uap);
int main()
{
double x, y, z;
char *out;
/*
* Use ieee_handler to establish "trap_all_fp_exc"
* as the signal handler to use whenever any floating
* point exception occurs.
*/
if (ieee_handler("set", "all", trap_all_fp_exc) != 0)
printf(" IEEE trapping not supported here.\n");
/* disable trapping (uninteresting) inexact exceptions */
if (ieee_handler("set", "inexact", SIGFPE_IGNORE) != 0)
printf("Trap handler for inexact not cleared.\n");
/* raise invalid */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("1. Invalid: signaling_nan(0) * 2.5\n");
x = signaling_nan(0);
y = 2.5;
z = x * y;
/* raise division */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("2. Div0: 1.0 / 0.0\n");
x = 1.0;
y = 0.0;
z = x / y;
/* raise overflow */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("3. Overflow: -max_normal() - 1.0e294\n");
x = -max_normal();
y = -1.0e294;
z = x + y;
/* raise underflow */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("4. Underflow: min_normal() * min_normal()\n");
x = min_normal();
y = x;
z = x * y;
/* enable trapping on inexact exception */
if (ieee_handler("set", "inexact", trap_all_fp_exc) != 0)
printf("Could not set trap handler for inexact.\n");
/* raise inexact */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("5. Inexact: 2.0 / 3.0\n");
x = 2.0;
y = 3.0;
z = x / y;
/* don't trap on inexact */
if (ieee_handler("set", "inexact", SIGFPE_IGNORE) != 0)
printf(" could not reset inexact trap\n");
/* check that we're not trapping on inexact anymore */
if (ieee_flags("clear", "exception", "all", &out) != 0)
printf(" could not clear exceptions\n");
printf("6. Inexact trapping disabled; 2.0 / 3.0\n");
x = 2.0;
y = 3.0;
z = x / y;
/* find out if there are any outstanding exceptions */
ieee_retrospective_();
/* exit gracefully */
return 0;
}
void trap_all_fp_exc(int sig, siginfo_t *sip, ucontext_t *uap) {
char *label = "undefined";
/* see /usr/include/sys/machsig.h for SIGFPE codes */
switch (sip->si_code) {
case FPE_FLTRES:
label = "inexact";
break;
case FPE_FLTDIV:
label = "division";
break;
case FPE_FLTUND:
label = "underflow";
break;
case FPE_FLTINV:
label = "invalid";
break;
case FPE_FLTOVF:
label = "overflow";
break;
}
printf(
" signal %d, sigfpe code %d: %s exception at address %x\n",
sig, sip->si_code, label, sip->__data.__fault.__addr);
}
The output is similar to the following:
1. Invalid: signaling_nan(0) * 2.5 signal 8, sigfpe code 7: invalid exception at address 10da8 2. Div0: 1.0 / 0.0 signal 8, sigfpe code 3: division exception at address 10e44 3. Overflow: -max_normal() - 1.0e294 signal 8, sigfpe code 4: overflow exception at address 10ee8 4. Underflow: min_normal() * min_normal() signal 8, sigfpe code 5: underflow exception at address 10f80 5. Inexact: 2.0 / 3.0 signal 8, sigfpe code 6: inexact exception at address 1106c 6. Inexact trapping disabled; 2.0 / 3.0 Note: IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled: underflow; overflow; division by zero; invalid operation; See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_handler(3M)
The following code shows how you can use ieee_handler and the include files to modify the default result of certain exceptional situations on SPARC:
Example A-14 Modifying the Default Result of Exceptional Situations/*
* Cause a division by zero exception and use the
* signal handler to substitute MAXDOUBLE (or MAXFLOAT)
* as the result.
*
* compile with the flag -Xa
*/
#include <values.h>
#include <siginfo.h>
#include <ucontext.h>
void division_handler(int sig, siginfo_t *sip, ucontext_t *uap);
int main() {
double x, y, z;
float r, s, t;
char *out;
/*
* Use ieee_handler to establish division_handler as the
* signal handler to use for the IEEE exception division.
*/
if (ieee_handler("set","division",division_handler)!=0) {
printf(" IEEE trapping not supported here.\n");
}
/* Cause a division-by-zero exception */
x = 1.0;
y = 0.0;
z = x / y;
/*
* Check to see that the user-supplied value, MAXDOUBLE,
* is indeed substituted in place of the IEEE default
* value, infinity.
*/
printf("double precision division: %g/%g = %g \n",x,y,z);
/* Cause a division-by-zero exception */
r = 1.0;
s = 0.0;
t = r / s;
/*
* Check to see that the user-supplied value, MAXFLOAT,
* is indeed substituted in place of the IEEE default
* value, infinity.
*/
printf("single precision division: %g/%g = %g \n",r,s,t);
ieee_retrospective_();
return 0;
}
void division_handler(int sig, siginfo_t *sip, ucontext_t *uap) {
int inst;
unsigned rd, mask, single_prec=0;
float f_val = MAXFLOAT;
double d_val = MAXDOUBLE;
long *f_val_p = (long *) &f_val;
/* Get instruction that caused exception. */
inst = uap->uc_mcontext.fpregs.fpu_q->FQu.fpq.fpq_instr;
/*
* Decode the destination register. Bits 29:25 encode the
* destination register for any SPARC floating point
* instruction.
*/
mask = 0x1f;
rd = (mask & (inst >> 25));
/*
* Is this a single precision or double precision
* instruction? Bits 5:6 encode the precision of the
* opcode; if bit 5 is 1, it's sp, else, dp.
*/
mask = 0x1;
single_prec = (mask & (inst >> 5));
/* put user-defined value into destination register */
if (single_prec) {
uap->uc_mcontext.fpregs.fpu_fr.fpu_regs[rd] =
f_val_p[0];
} else {
uap->uc_mcontext.fpregs.fpu_fr.fpu_dregs[rd/2] = d_val;
}
}
The following output is as expected:
double precision division: 1/0 = 1.79769e+308 single precision division: 1/0 = 3.40282e+38 Note: IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled: division by zero; See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_handler(3M)
You can use ieee_handler to force a program to abort in case of certain floating-point exceptions:
#include <floatingpoint.h>
program abort
c
ieeer = ieee_handler('set', 'division', SIGFPE_ABORT)
if (ieeer .ne. 0) print *, ' ieee trapping not supported'
r = 14.2
s = 0.0
r = r/s
c
print *, 'you should not see this; system should abort'
c
end
The following examples show how to use some of the exception handling features provided by libm. The first example is based on the following task: given a number x and coefficients a0, a1,..., aN, and b0, b1,..., bN-1, evaluate the function f(x) and its first derivative f'(x), where f() is the continued fraction:
f(x) =a0 + b0 / (x + a1 + b1 / (x + ... / (x + aN-1 + bN-1 / (x + aN))...)).
Computing f() is straightforward in IEEE arithmetic: even if one of the intermediate divisions overflows or divides by zero, the default value specified by the standard (a correctly signed infinity) turns out to yield the correct result. Computing f'(), on the other hand, can be more difficult because the simplest form for evaluating it can have removable singularities. If the computation encounters one of these singularities, it will attempt to evaluate one of the indeterminate forms 0/0, 0*infinity, or infinity/infinity, all of which raise invalid operation exceptions. W. Kahan has proposed a method for handling these exceptions via a feature called presubstitution.
Presubstitution is an extension of the IEEE default response to exceptions that lets the user specify in advance the value to be substituted for the result of an exceptional operation. Using the exception handling facilities in libm, a program can implement presubstitution easily by installing a handler in the FEX_CUSTOM exception handling mode. This mode allows the handler to supply any value for the result of an exceptional operation simply by storing that value in the data structure pointed to by the info parameter passed to the handler. The following example is a sample program to compute the continued fraction and its derivative using presubstitution implemented with a FEX_CUSTOM handler.
Example A-15 Computing the Continued Fraction and Its Derivative Using the FEX_CUSTOM Handler#include <stdio.h>
#include <sunmath.h>
#include <fenv.h>
volatile double p;
void handler(int ex, fex_info_t *info)
{
info->res.type = fex_double;
if (ex == FEX_INV_ZMI)
info->res.val.d = p;
else
info->res.val.d = infinity();
}
/*
* Evaluate the continued fraction given by coefficients a[j] and
* b[j] at the point x; return the function value in *pf and the
* derivative in *pf1
*/
void continued_fraction(int N, double *a, double *b,
double x, double *pf, double *pf1)
{
fex_handler_t oldhdl; /* for saving/restoring handlers */
volatile double t;
double f, f1, d, d1, q;
int j;
fex_getexcepthandler(&oldhdl, FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INVALID);
fex_set_handling(FEX_DIVBYZERO, FEX_NONSTOP, NULL);
fex_set_handling(FEX_INV_ZDZ | FEX_INV_IDI | FEX_INV_ZMI,
FEX_CUSTOM, handler);
f1 = 0.0;
f = a[N];
for (j = N - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
d = x + f;
d1 = 1.0 + f1;
q = b[j] / d;
/* the following assignment to the volatile variable t
is needed to maintain the correct sequencing between
assignments to p and evaluation of f1 */
t = f1 = (-d1 / d) * q;
p = b[j-1] * d1 / b[j];
f = a[j] + q;
}
fex_setexcepthandler(&oldhdl, FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INVALID);
*pf = f;
*pf1 = f1;
}
/* For the following coefficients, x = -3, 1, 4, and 5 will all
encounter intermediate exceptions */
double a[] = { -1.0, 2.0, -3.0, 4.0, -5.0 };
double b[] = { 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0 };
int main()
{
double x, f, f1;
int i;
feraiseexcept(FE_INEXACT); /* prevent logging of inexact */
fex_set_log(stdout);
fex_set_handling(FEX_COMMON, FEX_ABORT, NULL);
for (i = -5; i <= 5; i++) {
x = i;
continued_fraction(4, a, b, x, &f, &f1);
printf("f(% g) = %12g, f'(% g) = %12g\n", x, f, x, f1);
}
return 0;
}
Several comments about the program are in order. On entry, the function continued_fraction saves the current exception handling modes for division by zero and all invalid operation exceptions. It then establishes nonstop exception handling for division by zero and a FEX_CUSTOM handler for the three indeterminate forms. This handler will substitute infinity for both 0/0 and infinity/infinity, but it will substitute the value of the global variable p for 0*infinity. Note that p must be recomputed each time through the loop that evaluates the function in order to supply the correct value to substitute for a subsequent 0*infinity invalid operation. Note also that p must be declared volatile to prevent the compiler from eliminating it, since it is not explicitly mentioned elsewhere in the loop. Finally, to prevent the compiler from moving the assignment to p above or below the computation that can incur the exception for which p provides the presubstitution value, the result of that computation is also assigned to a volatile variable (called t in the program). The final call to fex_setexcepthandler restores the original handling modes for division by zero and the invalid operations.
The main program enables logging of retrospective diagnostics by calling the fex_set_log function. Before it does so, it raises the inexact flag; this has the effect of preventing the logging of inexact exceptions. Recall that in FEX_NONSTOP mode, an exception is not logged if its flag is raised, as explained in the section Retrospective Diagnostics. The main program also establishes FEX_ABORT mode for the common exceptions to ensure that any unusual exceptions not explicitly handled by continued_fraction will cause program termination. Finally, the program evaluates a particular continued fraction at several different points. As the following sample output shows, the computation does indeed encounter intermediate exceptions:
f(-5) = -1.59649, f'(-5) = -0.1818 f(-4) = -1.87302, f'(-4) = -0.428193 Floating point division by zero at 0x08048dbe continued_fraction, nonstop mode 0x08048dc1 continued_fraction 0x08048eda main Floating point invalid operation (inf/inf) at 0x08048dcf continued_fraction, handler: handler 0x08048dd2 continued_fraction 0x08048eda main Floating point invalid operation (0*inf) at 0x08048dd2 continued_fraction, handler: handler 0x08048dd8 continued_fraction 0x08048eda main f(-3) = -3, f'(-3) = -3.16667 f(-2) = -4.44089e-16, f'(-2) = -3.41667 f(-1) = -1.22222, f'(-1) = -0.444444 f( 0) = -1.33333, f'( 0) = 0.203704 f( 1) = -1, f'( 1) = 0.333333 f( 2) = -0.777778, f'( 2) = 0.12037 f( 3) = -0.714286, f'( 3) = 0.0272109 f( 4) = -0.666667, f'( 4) = 0.203704 f( 5) = -0.777778, f'( 5) = 0.0185185
The exceptions that occur in the computation of f'(x) at x = 1, 4, and 5 do not result in retrospective diagnostic messages because they occur at the same site in the program as the exceptions that occur when x = –3.
The preceding program might not represent the most efficient way to handle the exceptions that can occur in the evaluation of a continued fraction and its derivative. One reason is that the presubstitution value must be recomputed in each iteration of the loop regardless of whether or not it is needed. In this case, the computation of the presubstitution value involves a floating-point division, and on modern SPARC and x86 processors, floating-point division is a relatively slow operation. Moreover, the loop itself already involves two divisions, and because most SPARC and x86 processors cannot overlap the execution of two different division operations, divisions are likely to be a bottleneck in the loop; adding another division would exacerbate the bottleneck.
It is possible to rewrite the loop so that only one division is needed, and in particular, the computation of the presubstitution value need not involve a division. To rewrite the loop in this way, one must precompute the ratios of adjacent elements of the coefficients in the b array. This would remove the bottleneck of multiple division operations, but it would not eliminate all of the arithmetic operations involved in the computation of the presubstitution value. Furthermore, the need to assign both the presubstitution value and the result of the operation to be presubstituted to volatile variables introduces additional memory operations that slow the program. While those assignments are necessary to prevent the compiler from reordering certain key operations, they effectively prevent the compiler from reordering other unrelated operations, too. Thus, handling the exceptions in this example via presubstitution requires additional memory operations and precludes some optimizations that might otherwise be possible. Can these exceptions be handled more efficiently?
In the absence of special hardware support for fast presubstitution, the most efficient way to handle exceptions in this example may be to use flags, as the following version does:
Example A-16 Using Flags to Handle Exceptions (Continued)#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
/*
* Evaluate the continued fraction given by coefficients a[j] and
* b[j] at the point x; return the function value in *pf and the
* derivative in *pf1
*/
void continued_fraction(int N, double *a, double *b,
double x, double *pf, double *pf1)
{
fex_handler_t oldhdl;
fexcept_t oldinvflag;
double f, f1, d, d1, pd1, q;
int j;
fex_getexcepthandler(&oldhdl, FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INVALID);
fegetexceptflag(&oldinvflag, FE_INVALID);
fex_set_handling(FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INV_ZDZ | FEX_INV_IDI |
FEX_INV_ZMI, FEX_NONSTOP, NULL);
feclearexcept(FE_INVALID);
f1 = 0.0;
f = a[N];
for (j = N - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
d = x + f;
d1 = 1.0 + f1;
q = b[j] / d;
f1 = (-d1 / d) * q;
f = a[j] + q;
}
if (fetestexcept(FE_INVALID)) {
/* recompute and test for NaN */
f1 = pd1 = 0.0;
f = a[N];
for (j = N - 1; j >= 0; j--) {
d = x + f;
d1 = 1.0 + f1;
q = b[j] / d;
f1 = (-d1 / d) * q;
if (isnan(f1))
f1 = b[j] * pd1 / b[j+1];
pd1 = d1;
f = a[j] + q;
}
}
fesetexceptflag(&oldinvflag, FE_INVALID);
fex_setexcepthandler(&oldhdl, FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INVALID);
*pf = f;
*pf1 = f1;
}
In this version, the first loop attempts the computation of f(x) and f'(x) in the default nonstop mode. If the invalid flag is raised, the second loop recomputes f(x) and f'(x) explicitly testing for the appearance of a NaN. Usually, no invalid operation exception occurs, so the program only executes the first loop. This loop has no references to volatile variables and no extra arithmetic operations, so it will run as fast as the compiler can make it go. The cost of this efficiency is the need to write a second loop nearly identical to the first to handle the case when an exception occurs. This trade-off is typical of the dilemmas that floating-point exception handling can pose.
The exception handling facilities in libm are primarily intended to be used from C/C++ programs, but by using the Sun Fortran language interoperability features, you can call some libm functions from Fortran programs as well.
The following example shows a Fortran version of the program to evaluate a continued fraction and its derivative using presubstitution (SPARC only):
Example A-17 Evaluating a Continued Fraction and Its Derivative Using Presubstitution (SPARC)c
c Presubstitution handler
c
subroutine handler(ex, info)
structure /fex_numeric_t/
integer type
union
map
integer i
end map
map
integer*8 l
end map
map
real f
end map
map
real*8 d
end map
map
real*16 q
end map
end union
end structure
structure /fex_info_t/
integer op, flags
record /fex_numeric_t/ op1, op2, res
end structure
integer ex
record /fex_info_t/ info
common /presub/ p
double precision p, d_infinity
volatile p
c 4 = fex_double; see <fenv.h> for this and other constants
info.res.type = 4
c x'80' = FEX_INV_ZMI
if (loc(ex) .eq. x'80') then
info.res.d = p
else
info.res.d = d_infinity()
endif
return
end
c
c Evaluate the continued fraction given by coefficients a(j) and
c b(j) at the point x; return the function value in f and the
c derivative in f1
c
subroutine continued_fraction(n, a, b, x, f, f1)
integer n
double precision a(*), b(*), x, f, f1
common /presub/ p
integer j, oldhdl
dimension oldhdl(24)
double precision d, d1, q, p, t
volatile p, t
data ixff2/x'ff2'/
data ix2/x'2'/
data ixb0/x'b0'/
external fex_getexcepthandler, fex_setexcepthandler
external fex_set_handling, handler
c$pragma c(fex_getexcepthandler, fex_setexcepthandler)
c$pragma c(fex_set_handling)
c x'ff2' = FEX_DIVBYZERO | FEX_INVALID
call fex_getexcepthandler(oldhdl, %val(ixff2))
c x'2' = FEX_DIVBYZERO, 0 = FEX_NONSTOP
call fex_set_handling(%val(ix2), %val(0), %val(0))
c x'b0' = FEX_INV_ZDZ | FEX_INV_IDI | FEX_INV_ZMI, 3 = FEX_CUSTOM
call fex_set_handling(%val(ixb0), %val(3), handler)
f1 = 0.0d0
f = a(n+1)
do j = n, 1, -1
d = x + f
d1 = 1.0d0 + f1
q = b(j) / d
f1 = (-d1 / d) * q
c
c the following assignment to the volatile variable t
c is needed to maintain the correct sequencing between
c assignments to p and evaluation of f1
t = f1
p = b(j-1) * d1 / b(j)
f = a(j) + q
end do
call fex_setexcepthandler(oldhdl, %val(ixff2))
return
end
c Main program
c
program cf
integer i
double precision a, b, x, f, f1
dimension a(5), b(4)
data a /-1.0d0, 2.0d0, -3.0d0, 4.0d0, -5.0d0/
data b /2.0d0, 4.0d0, 6.0d0, 8.0d0/
data ixffa/x'ffa'/
external fex_set_handling
c$pragma c(fex_set_handling)
c x'ffa' = FEX_COMMON, 1 = FEX_ABORT
call fex_set_handling(%val(ixffa), %val(1), %val(0))
do i = -5, 5
x = dble(i)
call continued_fraction(4, a, b, x, f, f1)
write (*, 1) i, f, i, f1
end do
1 format('f(', I2, ') = ', G12.6, ', f''(', I2, ') = ', G12.6)
end
The output from this program compiled with the –f77 flag reads as follows:
f(-5) = -1.59649 , f'(-5) = -.181800
f(-4) = -1.87302 , f'(-4) = -.428193
f(-3) = -3.00000 , f'(-3) = -3.16667
f(-2) = -.444089E-15, f'(-2) = -3.41667
f(-1) = -1.22222 , f'(-1) = -.444444
f( 0) = -1.33333 , f'( 0) = 0.203704
f( 1) = -1.00000 , f'( 1) = 0.333333
f( 2) = -.777778 , f'( 2) = 0.120370
f( 3) = -.714286 , f'( 3) = 0.272109E-01
f( 4) = -.666667 , f'( 4) = 0.203704
f( 5) = -.777778 , f'( 5) = 0.185185E-01
Note: IEEE floating-point exception flags raised:
Inexact; Division by Zero; Underflow; Invalid Operation;
IEEE floating-point exception traps enabled:
overflow; division by zero; invalid operation;
See the Numerical Computation Guide, ieee_flags(3M),
ieee_handler(3M)
The previous section showed examples of using ieee_handler. In general, when there is a choice between using ieee_handler or sigfpe, the former is recommended.
There are instances, such as trapping integer arithmetic exceptions, when sigfpe is the handler to be used. Example A–18 traps on integer division by zero, on SPARC-based systems.
Example A-18 Trapping Integer Exceptions/* Generate the integer division by zero exception */
#include <signal.h>
#include <siginfo.h>
#include <ucontext.h>
void int_handler(int sig, siginfo_t *sip, ucontext_t *uap);
int main() {
int a, b, c;
/*
* Use sigfpe(3) to establish "int_handler" as the signal handler
* to use on integer division by zero
*/
/*
* Integer division-by-zero aborts unless a signal
* handler for integer division by zero is set up
*/
sigfpe(FPE_INTDIV, int_handler);
a = 4;
b = 0;
c = a / b;
printf("%d / %d = %d\n\n", a, b, c);
return 0;
}
void int_handler(int sig, siginfo_t *sip, ucontext_t *uap) {
printf("Signal %d, code %d, at addr %x\n",
sig, sip->si_code, sip->__data.__fault.__addr);
/*
* automatically for floating-point exceptions but not for
* integer division by zero.
*/
uap->uc_mcontext.gregs[REG_PC] =
uap->uc_mcontext.gregs[REG_nPC];
}
The following is a simple example of a C driver calling Fortran subroutines. Refer to Oracle Solaris Studio 12.4: C User’s Guide and Oracle Solaris Studio 12.4: Fortran User’s Guide for more information on working with C and Fortran. The following is the C driver (save it in a file named driver.c):
Example A-19 Calling Fortran From C/*
* a demo program that shows:
* 1. how to call f95 subroutine from C, passing an array argument
* 2. how to call single precision f95 function from C
* 3. how to call double precision f95 function from C
*/
extern int demo_one_(double *);
extern float demo_two_(float *);
extern double demo_three_(double *);
int main()
{
double array[3][4];
float f, g;
double x, y;
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 4; j++)
array[i][j] = i + 2*j;
g = 1.5;
y = g;
/* pass an array to a fortran function (print the array) */
demo_one_(&array[0][0]);
printf(" from the driver\n");
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 4; j++)
printf(" array[%d][%d] = %e\n",
i, j, array[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
/* call a single precision fortran function */
f = demo_two_(&g);
printf(
" f = sin(g) from a single precision fortran function\n");
printf(" f, g: %8.7e, %8.7e\n", f, g);
printf("\n");
/* call a double precision fortran function */
x = demo_three_(&y);
printf(
" x = sin(y) from a double precision fortran function\n");
printf(" x, y: %18.17e, %18.17e\n", x, y);
ieee_retrospective_();
return 0;
}
Save the Fortran subroutines in a file named drivee.f:
subroutine demo_one(array) double precision array(4,3) print *, 'from the fortran routine:' do 10 i =1,4 do 20 j = 1,3 print *, ' array[', i, '][', j, '] = ', array(i,j) 20 continue print * 10 continue return end real function demo_two(number) real number demo_two = sin(number) return end double precision function demo_three(number) double precision number demo_three = sin(number) return end
Perform the compilation and linking:
cc -c driver.c f95 -c drivee.f demo_one: demo_two: demo_three: f95 -o driver driver.o drivee.o
The output looks like this:
from the fortran routine:
array[ 1 ][ 1 ] = 0.0E+0
array[ 1 ][ 2 ] = 1.0
array[ 1 ][ 3 ] = 2.0
array[ 2 ][ 1 ] = 2.0
array[ 2 ][ 2 ] = 3.0
array[ 2 ][ 3 ] = 4.0
array[ 3 ][ 1 ] = 4.0
array[ 3 ][ 2 ] = 5.0
array[ 3 ][ 3 ] = 6.0
array[ 4 ][ 1 ] = 6.0
array[ 4 ][ 2 ] = 7.0
array[ 4 ][ 3 ] = 8.0
from the driver
array[0][0] = 0.000000e+00
array[0][1] = 2.000000e+00
array[0][2] = 4.000000e+00
array[0][3] = 6.000000e+00
array[1][0] = 1.000000e+00
array[1][1] = 3.000000e+00
array[1][2] = 5.000000e+00
array[1][3] = 7.000000e+00
array[2][0] = 2.000000e+00
array[2][1] = 4.000000e+00
array[2][2] = 6.000000e+00
array[2][3] = 8.000000e+00
f = sin(g) from a single precision fortran function
f, g: 9.9749500e-01, 1.5000000e+00
x = sin(y) from a double precision fortran function
x, y: 9.97494986604054446e-01, 1.50000000000000000e+00
The following table shows examples of debugging commands for the SPARC architecture.
|
When displaying floating-point numbers, you should keep in mind that the size of registers is 32 bits, a single precision floating-point number occupies 32 bits (hence it fits in one register), and a double precision floating-point number occupies 64 bits (therefore two registers are used to hold a double precision number). In the hexadecimal representation, 32 bits corresponds to 8 hexadecimal digits. In the following snapshot of FPU registers displayed with adb, the display is organized as follows:
<name of fpu register> <IEEE hex value> <single precision> <double precision>
The third column holds the single precision decimal interpretation of the hexadecimal pattern shown in the second column. The fourth column interprets pairs of registers. For example, the fourth column of the f11 line interprets f10 and f11 as a 64-bit IEEE double precision number.
Because f10 and f11 are used to hold a double precision value, the interpretation (on the f10 line) of the first 32 bits of that value, 7ff00000, as +NaN, is irrelevant. The interpretation of all 64 bits, 7ff00000 00000000, as +Infinity, happens to be the meaningful translation.
The adb command $x, that was used to display the first 16 floating-point data registers, also displayed fsr (the floating-point status register):
$x fsr 40020 f0 400921fb +2.1426990e+00 f1 54442d18 +3.3702806e+12 +3.1415926535897931e+00 f2 2 +2.8025969e-45 f3 0 +0.0000000e+00 +4.2439915819305446e-314 f4 40000000 +2.0000000e+00 f5 0 +0.0000000e+00 +2.0000000000000000e+00 f6 3de0b460 +1.0971904e-01 f7 0 +0.0000000e+00 +1.2154188766544394e-10 f8 3de0b460 +1.0971904e-01 f9 0 +0.0000000e+00 +1.2154188766544394e-10 f10 7ff00000 +NaN f11 0 +0.0000000e+00 +Infinity f12 ffffffff -NaN f13 ffffffff -NaN -NaN f14 ffffffff -NaN f15 ffffffff -NaN -NaN
The following table shows examples of debugging commands for the x86 architecture:
|
The following examples show two ways to set a breakpoint at the beginning of the code corresponding to a routine myfunction in adb. First you can use:
myfunction:b
Second, you can determine the absolute address that corresponds to the beginning of the piece of code corresponding to myfunction, and then set a break at that absolute address:
myfunction=X 23a8 23a8:b
The main subroutine in a Fortran program compiled with f95 is known as MAIN_ to adb. To set a breakpoint at MAIN_ in adb:
MAIN_:b
When examining the contents of floating-point registers, the hex value shown by the dbx command regs –F is the base-16 representation, not the number's decimal representation. For SPARC-based systems, the adb commands $x and $X display both the hexadecimal representation, and the decimal value. For x86-based systems, the adb command $x displays only the decimal value. For SPARC-based systems, the double precision values show the decimal value next to the odd-numbered register.
Because the operating system disables the floating-point unit until it is first used by a process, you cannot modify the floating-point registers until they have been accessed by the program being debugged.
The corresponding output on x86 looks like the following:
$x 80387 chip is present. cw 0x137f sw 0x3920 cssel 0x17 ipoff 0x2d93 datasel 0x1f dataoff 0x5740 st[0] +3.24999988079071044921875 e-1 VALID st[1] +5.6539133243479549034419688 e73 EMPTY st[2] +2.0000000000000008881784197 EMPTY st[3] +1.8073218308070440556016047 e-1 EMPTY st[4] +7.9180300235748291015625 e-1 EMPTY st[5] +4.201639036693904927233234 e-13 EMPTY st[6] +4.201639036693904927233234 e-13 EMPTY st[7] +2.7224999213218694649185636 EMPTY